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JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS LONDON AND EDINBURGH
THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA TOKYO, OSAKA, KYOTO, FUKUOKA, SENDAI
THE MISSION BOOK COMPANY SHANGHAI
TEE
MOURNAL OF GEOLOGY
A Semi-Quarterly Magazine of Geology and elated «Sciences
EDITED BY THOMAS C. CHAMBERLIN AND ROLLIN D. SALISBURY With the Active Collaboration of
SAMUEL W. WILLISTON ALBERT JOHANNSEN Vertebrate Paleontology Petrology STUART WELLER ROLLIN T. CHAMBERLIN - Invertebrate Paleontology Dynamic Geology
ALBERT D. BROKAW, Economic Geology
ASSOCIATE EDITORS SIR ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, Great Britain HENRY S. WILLIAMS, Cornell University
CHARLES BARROIS, France JOSEPH P. IDDINGS, Washington, D.C. ALBRECHT PENCK, Germany JOHN C. BRANNER, Leland Stanford University HANS REUSCH, Norway RICHARD A. F. PENROSE, Jr., Philadelphia, Pa. GERARD DEGEER, Sweden WILLIAM H. HOBBS, University of Michigan
T. W. EDGEWORTH DAVID, Australia FRANK D. ADAMS, McGill University BAILEY WILLIS, Leland Stanford Junior CHARLES K. LEITH, University of Wisconsin
University WALLACE W. ATWOOD, Harvard University GROVE K. GILBERT, Washington, D.C. WILLIAM H. EMMONS, University of Minnesota CHARLES D. WALCOTT, Smithsonian ARTHUR L. DAY, Carnegie Institution
Institution
VOLUME XXV JANUARY-DECEMBER, 1917
Zs <ahsonian sti p
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
Published February, March, May, June, August, September, November, December, 1917.
Composed and Printed By The University of Chicago Press Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.
CONTENTS OF VOLUME X XV
NUMBER I
SYMPOSIUM ON THE AGE AND RELATIONS OF THE Fosstt HUMAN REMAINS FOUND AT VERO, FLORIDA :
PAGE
EDITOR TAP ONODE iiss yuaede sac agaernel en i es Me aN Mie aiaell ie Ys I ON THE ASSOCIATION OF HUMAN REMAINS AND EXTINCT VERTE- BRATES AT VERO, FLORIDA. E. H. Sellards Bier tiger hae 4 INTERPRETATION OF THE FORMATIONS CONTAINING HUMAN BONES AT VERO, FLORIDA. Rollin T. Chamberlin Sy \ es aa 25 ON REPORTED PLEISTOCENE HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA. snhomass Wayland Vaughan tne ee feiss goa Aa 40 PRELIMINARY REPORT ON FINDS OF SUPPOSEDLY ANCIENT HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA. Ales Hrdlicka j : i ‘ 43 THE QUATERNARY DEPOSITS AT VERO, FLORIDA, AND THE VERTE- BRATE REMAINS CONTAINED THEREIN. Oliver P. Hay... 52 ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCES OF MAN’S ANTIQUITY AT VERO, FLORIDA. Georre GrantMiacCurdy 1 ey ea) he ce ae 56 SUGGESTIONS FOR A QUANTITATIVE MINERALOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF Icneous Rocks. Albert Johannsen . 3 : A : ; 63 REVIEWS . ; : : : : i 4 i ; ; é 5 : 98 NUMBER II ON THE HypotuHEsis oF Isostasy. W.D. MacMillan . . . .~ 105 THE Mippite PALreozoic STRATIGRAPHY OF THE CENTRAL ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION: 1. C2 We Tomlinson 77 oo ei LE SoME Factors AFFECTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF Mup-Cracks. E. M. Kindle ‘ : : i f 2 ; : : ; : : AP AREAS DOWNWARPING ALONG JOINT PLANES AT THE CLOSE OF THE NIAGARAN AND ACADIAN. Lancaster D. Burling . i SUS asia, MRR gad i) AGA cu ARG
THE WESTERN INTERIOR GEOSYNCLINE AND ITs BEARING ON THE ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE COAL MEASURES. Francis M. Van Tuyl 150
A DECIMAL GROUPING OF THE PLAGIOCLASES. F. C. Calkins , : 157
STUDIES FOR STUDENTS: A CLASSIFICATION OF BrecciAs. W. H. Norton vs if p i f A f : y ‘ : 5 160
REVIEWS . k : aN i : 4 % f : ; : : 195
vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXV
NUMBER III THE PROBLEM OF THE ANORTHOSITES. N. L. Bowen
THE MippLE PALEoOzoIc STRATIGRAPHY OF THE CENTRAL ROCKY MountTAIn ReEcion. II. C. W. Tomlinson j
A Few INTERESTING PHENOMENA ON THE ERUPTION OF USU. Y. Oinouye Re armpit eyC a Hi
INTRAFORMATIONAL PEBBLES IN THE RICHMOND GROUP, AT WINCHES- TER, Onto. August F. Foerste
REVIEWS
NUMBER IV
LABIDOSAURUS CoPpE, A LOWER PERMIAN COTYLOSAUR REPTILE FROM Texas. Samuel W. Williston
NOTES ON THE 1916 ERUPTION OF Mauna Loa. Iand II. Harry O. Wood
AGE AND STRATIGRAPHIC RELATIONS OF THE OLENTANGY SHALE OF CENTRAL OHIO, WITH REMARKS ON THE PROUT LIMESTONE AND SO-CALLED OLENTANGY SHALES OF NORTHERN OHIO. Amadeus W. Grabau
Tue History oF Devit’s LAKE, Wisconsin. Arthur C. Trowbridge .
THe MippLE PALEOzoIC STRATIGRAPHY OF THE CENTRAL ROCKY Mountain Recion. III. C. W. Tomlinson
REVIEWS
NUMBER V Tue Laws or Exvastico-Viscous Frow. A. A. Michelson : THE PHYLOGENY AND CLASSIFICATION OF REPTILES. S. W. Williston .
Our PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF ISOSTASY FROM GEODETIC EVIDENCE. William Bowie .
THE Satsop FORMATION OF OREGON AND WASHINGTON. J Harlen Bretzi-
THE CORROSIVE ACTION OF CERTAIN BRINES IN MANITOBA. R. C. Wallace
NOTES ON THE 1916 ERUPTION OF Mauna Loa. IIIT andIV. Harry O. Wood
A PRoposepD Diep Protractor. Chester K. Wentworth PETROLOGICAL ABSTRACTS AND Reviews. Albert Johannsen — RECENT PUBLICATIONS
PAGE
200
244
258
289 397
309
322
337 344
373 395
405 4It
422 446 459 467 489
492 498
CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXV
NUMBER VI
STRUCTURE OF THE ANORTHOSITE BODY IN THE ADIRONDACKS. H. P. Cushing .
ADIRONDACK INTRUSIVES. N. L. Bowen ADIRONDACK INTRUSIVES. H. P. Cushing A REVIEW OF THE AMORPHOUS MINERALS. Austin F. Rogers
THE CHAMPLAIN SEA IN THE LAKE Ontario Basin. Kirtley F. | Mather
THE RELATIONSHIPS OF THE FossiL Brrp Palacochendides Mioceanus. Alexander Wetmore
A STUDY OF THE FAUNAS OF THE RESIDUAL MISSISSIPPIAN OF PHELPS County (CENTRAL OzARK REGION), Missourr. Josiah Bridge
EVIDENCE BEARING ON A POSSIBLE NORTHEASTWARD EXTENSION OF MISSISSIPPIAN SEAS IN ILLINoIs. W. W. Davis
DISCUSSION OF “‘SOME EFFECTS OF CAPILLARITY ON Ort ACCUMULA- TION,” By A. W. McCoy. C. W. Washburne
PETROLOGICAL ABSTRACTS AND REviEws. Albert Johannsen
REVIEWS
NUMBER VII
ON THE AMOUNT OF INTERNAL FRICTION DEVELOPED IN ROocKS DURING DEFORMATION AND ON THE RELATIVE PLASTICITY OF DIFFERENT Types OF Rocks. Frank D. Adams and J. Austen Bancroft
ON THE MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF THE INTERNAL FRICTION AND LIMITING STRENGTH OF ROCKS UNDER CONDITIONS OF STRESS EXISTING IN THE INTERIOR OF THE EartH. Louis Vessot King
NOTE ON THE DEPOSITS CONTAINING HUMAN REMAINS AND ARTIFACTS AT VERO; Ftoripa. E. H. Sellards
Tue Fossit PLANTS FROM VERO, FLtormwA. Edward W. Berry FURTHER STUDIES AT VERO, FLormpa. Rollin T. Chamberlin
ANOTHER LOCALITY OF EOCENE GLACIATION IN SOUTHERN COLORADO. Wallace W. Atwood
REVIEWS
RECENT, PUBLICATIONS
594
Vili CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXV
NUMBER VIII
Tue ACTIVE VOLCANOES OF NEW ZEALAND. E.'S. Moore
FOOTHILLS STRUCTURE IN NORTHERN CoLorapbo. Victor Ziegler .
ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE ALKALI ROCKS IN THE TRANSVAAL. Brouwer : : : : : ‘ ! : i
PETROGRAPHICAL ABSTRACTS AND REviEws. Albert Johannsen
REVIEWS
RECENT PUBLICATIONS
INDEX TO VOLUME XXV
H. A.
PAGE
693 715
741 779 782 788 789
VOLUME XXV NUMBER tr
THE
JOURNAL or GEOLOGY,.
A SEMI-QUARTERLY ZL ent a Ne _ EDITED By (2 FOt2 2 THOMAS C. CHAMBERLIN AND ROLLIN D. SALISBURY X Noses Sh eg With the Active Collaboration of = a a SAMUEL W. WILLISTON, Vertebrate Paleontology ALBERT JOHANNSEN, Petrology STUART WELLER, Invertebrate Paleontology ROLLIN T. CHAMBERLIN, Dynamic Geology"
ALBERT D, BROKAW, Economic Geology
ASSOCIATE EDITORS Re We SIR ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, Great Britain JOSEPH P.IDDINGS, Washington, D.C. Sa CHARLES BARROIS, France JOHN C, BRANNER, Leland Stanford Junior University ALBRECHT PENCK, Germany RICHARD A. F. PENROSE, Jr., Philadelphia, Pa. _ HANS REUSCH, Norway WILLIAM B. CLARK, Johns Hopkins University _ GERARD DEGEER, Sweden . WILLIAM H. HOBBS, University of Michigan * Tf. W. EDGEWORTH DAVID, Australia FRANK D. ADAMS, McGill University _ BAILEY WILLIS, Leland Stanford Junior University CHARLES K. LEITH, University of Wisconsin GROVE K. GILBERT, Washington, D.C. WALLACE W. ATWOOD, Harvard University CHARLES D. WALCOTT, Smithsonian Institution WILLIAM H. EMMONS, University of Minnesota HENRY S. WILLIAMS, Cornell University ARTHUR L. DAY, Carnegie Institution
Bord . ‘: °
JANUARY-FEBRUARY 1917
SYMPOSIUM ON THE AGE AND RELATIONS OF THE FOSSIL HUMAN REMAINS FOUND AT VERO, FLORIDA:
- EpirortAL NOTE “= = = = soa > Sama ipl = - - - = Sins I ON THE ARgOCIATLON oF HumAN REMAINS AND EXTINCT VERTEBRATES AT VERO, FLORIDA
‘ E. H. SELLARDS 4 oe ene eAmON OF THE FORMATIONS Contarninc Human Bones AT VERO, FLORIDA Roun T. CHAMBERLIN 25
ON REPORTED PLEISTOCENE HumAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA — THOMAS WAYLAND VAUGHAN 40
Saran e ReEporT ON FINDS OF SUPPOSEDLY ANCIENT HumMaN REMAINS AT VERO,
FLORIDA —- = Aha - - = - - - - E ALES HRDLICKA 43 | THe QuaTERNARY Deposits AT VERO, FLORIDA, AND THE VERTEBRATE REMAINS CON- | TAINED THEREIN - = -— - - - - = ae - - OLIVER P. Hay 52
2 ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCES OF MAN’s ANTIQUITY AT VERO, FLORIDA GrorcE Grant MacCurpy 50
SUGGESTIONS FOR A QUANTITATIVE MINERALOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS - - - - - - - - ALBERT JOHANNSEN 63 REVIEWS = AiG eae ea cee nial poids ee - SNS aE SAA t ee TRE OES OE aint Malas)
Side UNIVERSITY OF CHIREAGO PRESS CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, U.S.A.
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THE JOURNAL “OR “CEOLOG.
EDITED BY
THOMAS C. CHAMBERLIN AND ROLLIN D. SALISBURY
With the Active Collaboration of
SAMUEL W. WILLISTON : ALBERT JOHANNSEN Vertebrate Paleontology Petrology STUART WELLER ROLLIN T. CHAMBERLIN Invertebrate Paleontology . é: Dynamic Geology
ALBERT D. BROKAW Economic Geology
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SRE SES Bee iia ik les aaaae da
VOLUME XXV NUMBER I
THE
JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY
JANUARY-FEBRUARY 1917
SYMPOSIUM ON THE AGE AND RELATIONS OF THE FOSSIL HUMAN REMAINS FOUND AT VERO, FLORIDA
Dr. E. H. SELLARDs, State Geologist of Florida Dr. RoLtIn T. CHAMBERLIN, Geologist, University of Chicago
Dr. T. WAYLAND VAUGHAN, Geologist in Charge of the Coastal Plain Investigations of the United States Geological Survey
Dr. A. HrpiiéKa, Curator of Physical Anthropology, United States National Museum Dr. O. P. Hay, Research Associate, Carnegie Institution of Washington
Dr. G. G. MacCurpy, Anthropologist, Yale University
Epiror1aL Note.—In the issue of the American Journal of Science of July, 1916, Dr. E. H. Sellards, state geologist of Florida, announced the discovery of fossil human bones and artifacts in association with the relics of many extinct vertebrates in a stream deposit near Vero on the east coast of Florida. In the issue of Science of October 27, 1916, there appeared a supplementary article, by the same author, giving additional data bearing on the age and relations of these interesting remains. About the same date there appeared a more comprehensive statement in the Eighih Annual Report of the Florida Geological Survey. Soon after the issuance of the first paper, Dr. Sellards submitted to the editors of the Journal of Geology an additional article empha- sizing certain aspects of the question of man’s relationship to the
I
2 SYMPOSIUM
extinct vertebrates not set forth with equal fulness in the previous article. ‘The tender of this manuscript was accompanied by a very cordial invitation to visit the deposits at Vero and make independent examination. Similar invitations were extended to representatives of the Smithsonian Institution, the National Geological Survey, and other institutions and individuals interested in the subject. This opportunity for co-operative inspection before publication fell happily into the policy of the Journal, especially as the crowded state of its columns did not permit immediate publication. While the Journal of Geology does not hold itself immediately responsible for the conclusions advanced by its contributors, it desires, so far as possible, when the issues are vital, that all tenable aspects of interpretation shall be placed before its readers that they may form their own conclusions on the amplest available basis.
A conference was finally arranged for the last of October, in which there participated Dr. A. Hrdlicka, anthropologist of the United States National Museum; Dr. T. Wayland Vaughan, geologist in charge of the coastal plain investigations of the United States Geological Survey; Dr. O. P. Hay, special student of Pleistocene vertebrates; Dr. G. G. MacCurdy, anthropologist of Yale University; and Dr. R. T. Chamberlin, as representative of the Journal of Geology. The members of the conference en- joyed the guidance and assistance of Dr. Sellards; his assistant, Mr. H. Gunter; and his local colleagues, Mr. Isaac M. Weills and Mr. Frank Ayers, whose courtesies were unbounded. The visits of these special students were only partially concurrent, that of Dr. Chamberlin extending from October 23 to 28, that of Dr. Hrdlicka from October 25 to 30, that of Dr. Hay from October 25 to 31, that of Dr. MacCurdy from October 25 to 29, and that of Dr. Vaughan from October 27 to 30; hence, while all met upon the ground, their examinations were largely independent. The present assemblage of the several statements of these visiting investigators into a symposium, in connection with the paper of Dr. Sellards—revised after the conference—was arranged without specific knowledge of the conclusions of any of the visiting parties, except, of course, those of the Journal’s own representative, and the independence
FOSSIL HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA 3
of the reports has been preserved in passing the manuscripts through the press. The statements are arranged in the order of their receipt.
The dates of issuance of this and the preceding number of the Journal have been advanced, so that this important assemblage of data might be in the hands of those specially interested before the holiday meetings of the scientific societies, while, at the same time, delay in publishing other waiting articles might be avoided.— EDITORS.
ON THE ASSOCIATION OF HUMAN REMAINS AND EXTINCT VERTEBRATES AT VERO, FLORIDA
E. H. SELLARDS State Geologist of Florida, Tallahassee, Florida
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
SKETCH Map OF THE LOCALITY
DESCRIPTION OF THE SECTION INCLUDING STRATA NOS. I, 2, AND 3 HuMAN REMAINS AND ARTIFACTS FROM STRATUM NO. 2
HuMAN REMAINS AND ARTIFACTS FROM STRATUM NO. 3
FOSSILS FROM STRATUM NO. 1
FOSSILS FROM STRATUM NO. 2
FossiLs FROM STRATUM NO. 3
INTERPRETATION OF THE SECTION
RELATION OF THE HUMAN REMAINS TO THE ASSOCIATED FOSSILS
The presence of vertebrate fossils in deposits exposed near Vero in eastern Florida first became known in 1913. Fossil human remains were not found at this locality, however, until October, t915. Subsequently additional human skeletal material was obtained in February, April, and June, 1916. The associated fossils, which are numerous and varied, have been collected practi- cally continuously since the locality became known, although the largest collections are those made in February, 1915, and in Feb- ruary, April, June, October, and November, 1916. During the latter part of October the writer and his associates in Florida enjoyed and profited by the presence at this locality of Drs. Hay, MacCurdy, Hrdlicka, Vaughan, and Chamberlin, all of whom are participants in the present discussion. The writer is also per- sonally indebted to the several specialists in different branches of paleontology who have identified and described fossils from this locality, acknowledgment of which is made in the subsequent pages of this paper.
The discovery of human remains in association with extinct vertebrates at this locality was announced by the writer in the
4
FOSSIL HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA 5
issue of the American Journal of Science of July, 1916. Later dis- coveries were described in Science in the issue of October 27, 1916. Subsequently, in the Eighth Annual Report of the Florida Geological Survey, published in October, 1916, the human remains and the associated fossils were more fully described. The present paper includes supplementary observations made during October and November, 1916.
SKETCH MAP OF THE LOCALITY ~
The fossils at this place were found in a stream bed and were discovered as the result of the construction of a drainage canal. As an aid in interpreting the section through the stream bed the reader may refer to the sketch map of the locality and surroundings shown in Fig. 1. The chief topographic features include a Pleis- tocene beach and the drainage system of the stream in which the fossils were found. On the east is the narrow body of ocean water known as Indian River and the beach of the present shore line. The ancient beach at this place is low, having an elevation of from 5 to 15 feet above the adjoining flat lands. Both to the north and to the south, however, the ridge formed by the beach becomes more pronounced. ‘This beach, in fact, is a part of the extensive Pleis- tocene barrier beach which approximately parallels the present shore line for 200 or 300 miles in eastern Florida, and is comparable in origin to the modern or existing ocean beach which lies from one to six miles farther east. The land both in front and back of the beach is prevailingly flat and presents but little variation in level. Such minor elevations as are found tend to assume the form of ridges with a general north-south trend, separated by slight intervening depressions which not infrequently are imperfectly drained. A pronounced north-south ridge or beach is found about 1o miles inland and is known locally as Ten Mile Ridge.
The drainage system of the stream in which the fossils were found is very limited in extent and is controlled largely by the Pleistocene beach. The valley of the main stream, which has a width of from 350 to soo feet, extends from tidewater in the Indian River into, but not across, this beach. Near the place where the fossils were found the broad valley terminates abruptly
6 E. H. SELLARDS
and receives a tributary from the north and another from the south, each of which, however, is of very limited extent. The tributary from the south reaches as far as the railroad station at Vero, a distance of about a half-mile, and one prong also finds its way across the beach and extends as an indefinite drain into the lowlands a distance of possibly a mile. The tributary from the north likewise divides: the west prong, crossing the beach, heads less than a mile to the northwest, while the east prong, which does not cross the beach, continues to the north, paralleling the beach
Fic. 1.—Sketch-map showing the locality near Vero from which fossil human remains have been obtained. Scale, 1 inch=4,000 feet. No. 1, pine lands; No. 2, Pleistocene beach; No. 3, stream valley. The human remains were found in the canal bank in this valley, west of the railroad and of the public-road crossing.
to Gifford Station, a distance of about 13 miles. The whole drain- age system is thus very limited, involving only a few square miles, and is in striking contrast to the broad valley which the stream has developed in its lower course. Owing to the breadth of the valley, it may possibly be inferred that at some former time the stream had a larger drainage basin than at present. This, however, does not seem to have been the case, since a pronounced cut or stream channel across the beach, if made, would have persisted to the present time.
FOSSIL HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA 7
The native vegetation is distinctive on the beach, on the flat- lands, and in the stream valley. The beach is characterized by spruce pine, Pinus clausa, and by an undergrowth of shrubs in which evergreens predominate. ‘The flatlands support a scattered growth of long-leaf pine, Pinus palustris, the undergrowth being chiefly saw palmetto. In the stream valley is found a dense timber growth consisting chiefly of hardwood deciduous trees and the cabbage palmetto. The outlines of the valley and of the beach may be very definitely followed by the vegetation, which is con- trolled in turn by the soil and by the drainage conditions.
The drainage canal, which starts at sea-level on the Indian River, extends due west about one mile before entering the valley of the stream. After following the stream a distance of about 1,000 feet, and having passed under both the railroad and the public road, the canal leaves the valley near the union of the two tributaries, cuts through the beach, and extends inland in a general southwesterly direction about 12 miles. ‘The water level in the canal at low-water stage at the locality where the fossils were found is probably not more than 1 foot above sea, although upon crossing the beach the water level is lifted by means of a spillway to approximately 11 feet above mean sea-level. The land surface for a distance of 12 or 15 miles inland probably nowhere exceeds an elevation of 20 or 25 feet, except Ten Mile Ridge, which is 34 feet above mean sea-level.
DESCRIPTION OF THE SECTION THROUGH THE STREAM VALLEY INCLUDING STRATA NUMBERED I, 2, AND 3
The section through the stream valley, as exposed in the canal bank, includes three more or less well-marked divisions, which in the present, as in the preceding papers, may be numbered 1, 2, and 3, No. 1 being at the base of the section and No. 3 at the top. In No. 3 of the section are found human remains and artifacts, vertebrate, land and fresh-water invertebrate, and plant fossils. In No. 2 are found human remains, flint spalls, and probably also bone implements, as well as vertebrate, land and fresh-water invertebrate, and plant fossils. From the basal member of the section, a marine deposit, no human remains have been obtained.
8 E. H. SELLARDS
To what extent the three divisions of this section represent dis- tinct time intervals, and, on the other hand, to what extent they may intergrade and thus express continuity of time, is discussed subsequently. ‘These divisions are sufficiently well marked to be recognized throughout the greater part or all of the section, and serve as convenient markers in the exact placing of fossils.
The marine deposit, No. 1 of the section, is common to this part of the Atlantic Coast of Florida, and is known to extend both to the north and to the south, being a part of an extensive shallow- water marine formation which borders the Atlantic Coast in Florida for a distance of 200 or 300 miles. This stratum is. pre- vailingly a shell marl, although it contains considerable sand, and in places may consist wholly of sand of medium fine texture. A large exposure, however, will scarcely fail to reveal the presence of the marine shells.
Stratum No. 2, on the other hand, is probably local, represent- ing fill in the stream valley, although its time equivalent, as indi- cated by the fauna, is found at many localities throughout the state. This deposit in the stream valley averages 3 or 4 feet in thickness, and consists chiefly of rather coarse sand, which at the top as a rule grades into fresh-water marl. Within the stratum, filling holes or channels in the underlying deposit, are found local accumulations of muck, including often wood, sticks, acorns, snail shells, and vertebrate fossils. As a rule the sand near the base of this stratum is light-colored and distinctly cross-bedded, the heavy minerals, including staurolite, ilmenite, and quartz, being deposited in bands and in pockets according to the size of the grain and the specific gravity of the minerals. From 2 to 3 feet above the base of the stratum the sand loses its cross-bedding and becomes dark in color, owing to the inclusion of organic matter. At the top, as has been stated, the sand passes into marl, contain- ing an abundance of land and fresh-water invertebrates.
Stratum No. 3 consists chiefly of layers of muck and vegetable material, alternating with layers of loose, nearly pure, light-colored sand. This alternation of sand and muck is both abrupt and frequent, the layers in places having only a thickness of from one- half to 2 or 3 inches. At the top this stratum grades into a fresh-
FOSSIL HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA 9
water marl which, in places, reaches a thickness of 18 inches. The maximum thickness of this stratum is about 5 feet, although its average thickness is from 2 to 3 feet.
The accompanying sketch, Fig 2, shows the section exposed in the north bank of the canal from the railroad bridge west for a distance of 500 feet. No. 1 is the marine shell marl; No. 2 is the sand stratum which at the base is cross-bedded and at the top passes into fresh-water marl; No. 3 is the deposit of muck and vegetable material with alternating layers of incoherent sand. The letter 6 indicates the location of one of the holes or channels in the shell marl containing muck and driftwood as well as verte- brate, invertebrate, and plant fossils.
In Fig. 3 is shown a section, drawn to scale, of 75 feet of the south bank of the canal, showing the exposure as seen in November, 1916. ‘This section includes that part of the bank west of the entrance of the lateral canal from the south, and thus passes through the exposure at which some of the important fossils have been found. Stratum No. 1 has an approximately even top sur- face, although at one place near the middle of the section it is cut into rather deeply by stratum No. 2. - This place, in fact, repre-
sents another of the holes or channels in No. 1 filled with muck and decayed wood. Stratum No. 2 is variable in thickness, being cut into at places by stratum No. 3. Stratum No. 3 as seen in this section is variable both in thickness and in lithologic character- istics. Its maximum thickness near the middle of the section is about 5 feet, the upper 18 inches of which is a fresh-water marl. The top or ground surface of this stratum is cut into at a and at b. The cut at a@ was probably made in connection with dredging operations. That at 6, however, is evidently the channel of the modern stream where it cut into stratum No. 3.
At the point f in this section the muck and alluvial material of No. 3 grades laterally by an indefinite line into the marl rock. In the writer’s former papers the whole section at e was referred to stratum No. 2, No. 3 being interpreted as absent at this place. The present exposure apparently indicates that the two feet of marl at e is the equivalent of the muck and marl bed of No. 3. A similar section is seen on the opposite or east side of the lateral
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FOSSIL HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA ua
canal, and apparently the marl rock of that section may also be referred to stratum No. 3. This part of the section will be more fully discussed subsequently.
The sketch, Fig. 2 of this paper, may be compared with Fig. 6 of the writer’s paper in the Highth Annual Report of the Florida Geological Survey, in which is shown a part of the same bank, including the location of the important fossils. Although this part of the canal bank was afterward carried back by excavations a distance of from 5 to 8 feet, the fossils of the former sketch may, as a matter of convenience, be projected on to the present sketch, as has been done in this figure, thus indicating their approximate location with respect to the section as now exposed. Human bones were found in No. 2 at c (projected from the former section) and in No. 3 at the general locality indicated by d. Pottery and bone implements are found in No. 3 throughout the section.
HUMAN REMAINS AND ARTIFACTS FROM STRATUM NO. 2
The first human bones obtained at Vero were found in the south bank of the canal, 330 feet west of the bridge. In the exposure at this place there is no recognizable break in the section from the base of stratum No. 2 to the marl rock at the top of the section, and in the writer’s earlier papers the whole section was referred to stratum No. 2. The new observations recorded in this paper apparently permit the reference of the marl rock at the top of the section to stratum No. 3. If this is true, the human bones at this place in stratum No. 2 are beneath the one and one-half or two feet of marl rock which represents stratum No. 32.
The second lot of human bones from stratum No. 2 were found by the writer in June, 1916. The bones found in place include an astragalus, a cuneiform, and a part of an ilium. Upon sifting the sand in which these bones were imbedded there was obtained in addition two phalanges, a section from a limb bone, and some other human bone fragments. The cuneiform was about ro inches from the astragalus, and between the two bones at the same level as the astragalus was the scapula of a deer. The ilium was about one foot farther back in the bank. The vertebrate fossils found
I2 VE ASE LEARDS.
in the bank at this locality have been listed in the papers pre- viously published.
The flints obtained from stratum No. 2 include a spall found in place 3 feet east of the human bones listed in the preceding paragraph, and about one foot farther back in the bank. Upon passing the sand through a sieve five additional flint spalls were obtained from this stratum, one of which was found about 10 feet
SCALE 1 INCH = 4 FEET
Fic. 4.—Ground plan showing the location of human bones found in the canal bank at Vero in April and in June, 1916. The canal bank at this place faces approxi- mately northwest and those bones, the location of which is indicated by Nos. 1-5, and also several of the skull fragments, were collected in April. Those bones num- bered 6-9 and a few skull fragments were collected in June. Among bones not specially numbered are a part of the right femur and an incisor tooth found near No. 9, and a part of a metatarsal found near No. 2. The bones indicated by Nos. 1-5 and No. 9 and several of the skull fragments were found on or near the contact line of strata Nos. 2 and 3. Those bones indicated by Nos. 6-8 were found in stratum No. 2. Bones taken from the caving of the bank and from siftings are not shown in this plan. Index to bones: 1, left ulna; 2, a part of the shaft of the same bone; 3, left femur; 9, a part of the shaft of the same bone; 4, radius; 5, metatarsal; 6, astragalus; 7, ex- ternal cuneiform; 8, part of ilium. ‘The place in the bank of bones Nos. 1, 3, and 4, and bones Nos. 6 and 7, is shown in photographs previously published.
farther west. From these siftings were obtained also one nearly complete small bone implement and a piece of a second bone implement. Markings on bones from this stratum, which may have been made by tools, have been described in the papers to which reference has been made.
FOSSIL HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA 13
The spalls found in this stratum have been placed in the hands of Dr. George Grant MacCurdy, who has consented to report upon them. It is evident that these flints are not of local origin, the nearest known outcrop of a flint-bearing formation being more than too miles to the northwest. The flint spalls are sharp- edged and quite unworn, indicating that they have been trans- ported no great distance by water. ‘The small flint pebbles occasionally found in this deposit, on the contrary, are rounded and well worn, there being no intermediate stages between the worn pebbles of the deposit and the sharp-edged spalls.
HUMAN REMAINS AND ARTIFACTS IN STRATUM NO. 3
Three finds of human skeletal material are reported from stratum No. 3. In each instance the bones lay at the contact line between strata Nos. 2 and 3, and hence may belong to No. 2 rather than to No. 3. The first of these discoveries was in the south bank of the canal at the locality shown in Fig. 3. The bones obtained at this place include the right and left ulna, part of a humerus, a scapula, two incisors, parts of right and left femora, a radius, part of a jaw, two metatarsals, and a considerable portion of the skull, the pieces of which were dissociated and scattered. All of these bones were on or very near the contact line between Nos. 2 and 3, and, as they are near the place where human bones were found in No. 2, they may have been derived from stratum No. 2 and, as the writer has previously suggested,' may pertain to the same individual as the bones found in No. 2.
The second discovery of human remains referred to stratum No. 3 was made by Isaac M. Weills, who in April, 1916, obtained a single human toe bone from the base of stratum No. 3 on the north bank of the canal, 419 feet west of the bridge. A third dis- covery of human skeletal material from this stratum was made also by Mr. Weills, who in June, 1916, obtained a single human tooth from the base of No. 3, on the north bank of the canal, 450 feet west of the bridge. All of the human skeletal material obtained at Vero has been placed in the hands of Dr. A. Hrdlicka, who, it is hoped, will discuss their relation to the modern races.
t Fla. State Geol. Surv., Eighth Annual Report, p. 142, October, 1916.
14 E. H. SELLARDS
In addition to the skeletal material a large number of artifacts have been obtained from stratum No. 3. A small arrowhead was taken from this stratum by Mr. Weills in April, 1916. A rather large arrowhead was obtained from near the base of the deposit by the writer in June, 1916. Two spalls have been found near the contact line of strata Nos. 2 and 3, and four others have been obtained in siftings from No. 3. From this deposit has been taken about two dozen bone implements, as well as one wood implement and one object, probably a section from an alligator tooth, which apparently was used as an ornament. Broken pot- tery is not uncommon in this stratum, about one hundred or more pieces having been collected. Neither the pottery nor the bone implements are restricted in their occurrence. On the contrary, they are common to this horizon and are found at places where the horizon reaches its maximum thickness and retains its covering of marl rock, as well as at other places where the stratum is thinner and has been cut into by the recent stream bed.
FOSSILS FROM STRATUM NO. I
Stratum No. 1, as previously noted, is a marine deposit in which invertebrates are abundant and well preserved, the natural colora- tion of the shells being in some degree retained. No vertebrate fossils are known from this stratum at this locality, although from shell marl, probably equivalent in age, at West Palm Beach the writer has obtained the distal end of the humerus of a camel.
A collection of invertebrates from this horizon was made by the writer in 1915 and submitted to Dr. T. W. Vaughan, in charge of Coastal Plains investigations of the United States Geological Survey. The mollusks of this collection have been identified under Dr. Vaughan’s direction by Mr. Wendell C. Mansfield. Of forty-two species definitely identified (17 gastropods and 25 pele- cypods), all, according to notes kindly supplied by Mr. Mansfield, are identical with the species believed to be now living. One species only, an Arca, is regarded by Mr. Mansfield as intermediate between the recent A. ponderosa and the probably extinct A. limula. It appears, therefore, that the marine molluscan fauna of
FOSSIL HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA 15
stratum No. 1, as well as the land and fresh-water molluscan fauna of stratum No. 2, is essentially identical with the modern molluscan fauna. In this respect the invertebrates are in very decided con- trast to the vertebrates among which are many extinct species.
FOSSILS FROM STRATUM NO. 2
To the mammals previously listed from stratum No. 2? may now be added the genus Mylodon, evidence of the presence of which in stratum No. 2 was obtained in connection with the conference of geologists and anthropologists held at Vero in October. Among other important fossils added in November were about thirty bones from the skeleton of the large extinct wolf, Canis ayersi. These bones were found in the canal bank, from 7 to 10 feet west of the place from which the skull and femur which served as the type specimen of the species were found, and probably belong to the same individual. From the north bank of the canal, 460 feet west of the bridge, was obtained a practically complete skull of the tapir, lacking only the lower jaw. From the south bank of the canal at the railroad bridge was obtained about 44 feet of the tusk of a proboscidian. ‘This tusk was found at the same place and probably pertains to the mastodon, a part of the skull of which had previously been secured. ‘The recovery of these fossils was due chiefly to high water in the canal, following heavy rains at the close of October. The water cleaned the banks of the canal, thus facilitating both the examination of the section and the col- lecting of fossils. To the birds, of which two species were pre- viously known, a third species, represented by a humerus, may now be added. ‘To the other fossils of this stratum—the plants, inver- tebrates, fishes, batrachians, and reptiles—no species so far as known are added in the new collections. The land and fresh- water invertebrates, which include about twenty-eight identi- fiable species, have been determined as previously reported by Dr. Paul Bartsch and are found to be identical with the modern species. The turtles have been identified by Dr. O. P. Hay and have been found to include chiefly extinct species.
t Fla. Geol. Surv., Eighth Ann. Reft., p. 158.
16 E. H. SELLARDS
The following is a list of the mammals of stratum No. 2, which fully establish the Pleistocene age of the deposit:
Didelphis virginiana Mammut americanum Megalonyx jeffersonii Elephas columbi Mylodon sp. Neofiber alleni Chlamytherium septentrionalis Sylvilagus sp. Dasypus sp. Sigmodon sp. Equus leidyi Cryptotis floridana Equus complicatus ) Blarina sp.
Equus littoralis Smilodon sp. Tapirus sp. Hydrochoerus sp. Odocoileus sp. Procyon lotor Bison sp. Lutra canadensis Peccary, indt. Canis ayersi Camel, indt.
The Pleistocene fauna of this horizon is found at many places in Florida. Some of the localities on or near the Gulf Coast from which a typical representation of this fauna has been obtained are Peace Creek, Sarasota Bay, the Caloosahatchee River, the With- lacoochee River, and cave deposits at Ocala. Other localities on or near the Atlantic Coast from which this fauna is known include Daytona, Fellsmere, Palm Beach, Eau Gallie, and St. Augustine. The mammalian species known from these different localities have been listed by the writer in a paper recently published.
FOSSILS FROM STRATUM NO. 3
The fossils of stratum No. 3, which include plants, insects, land and fresh-water mollusks, fishes, batrachians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, have not been fully identified, and hence cannot be discussed in detail at this time. Mr. E. W. Berry has kindly under- taken the identification of the plants. The insects, of which only a few have been obtained, have been submitted to Professor H. F. Wickam. The land and fresh-water mollusks are few in number, and presumably are identical with the modern. species, since those of the older deposit, stratum No. 2, according to Dr. Bartsch, are not separable from the modern forms. The fish
« “Fossil Vertebrates from Florida; A New Miocene Fauna; New Pliocene Species;
the Pleistocene Fauna,” Fla. Geol. Surv., Eighth Annual Report, pp. 77-119, Pls. IO-14, 1916.
FOSSIL HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA 17
remains, which are fragmentary, are in the hands of Dr. Charles R. Eastman. The birds of this deposit are being studied by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.
The turtles from stratum No. 3 have been studied by Dr. O. P. Hay, who finds that six species are present. Of these six species three are extinct, one is sub-specifically different from the modern, and two are apparently not separable from the modern species. The mammals, the identification of which has been approximately completed, are more abundant than the turtles. The species of mammals recognized include the following:
Didelphis virginiana Scalopus sp. Chlamytherium septentrionalis Vulpes sp. Dasypus sp. Canis cf. latrans Odocoileus sp. Procyon lotor ? Neofiber alleni. Lutra canadensis Sylvilagus sp. Lynx sp. Sigmodon sp. Ursus, indt.
Neotoma sp.
The extinct genus of armadillo-like animals, Chlamytherium, is represented by well-preserved, uneroded dermal scutes. The armadillo, Dasypus, is likewise represented by dermal scutes. The fox, which differs from the species at present known in Florida, is represented by a part of the lower jaw containing two pre- molar teeth, and by a single premolar tooth obtained from the fresh-water marl rock on the south bank of the canal, 335 feet west of the bridge. The rock at this place, as previously men- tioned, has heretofore been placed in stratum No. 2, but at present is regarded as probably equivalent to stratum No. 3. Canis cf. latrans is represented by a part of the upper jaw containing the carnassial tooth. The lynx is represented by a jaw and a tibia. Parts of the teeth of Elephas columbi and of Mammut americanum are by no means uncommon in this stratum. The tapir and horse are also represented, although by fragmentary material.
Dr. R. W. Shufeldt has very considerately submitted an abstract of his report on the fossil birds found at Vero, with permission to insert it here in advance of the publication of the report as a whole. The abstract includes all bird material obtained at Vero except a
18 E. H,. SELLARDS
stork, Jabiru weillst, previously described by the writer, and a left humerus of a passerine bird related, according to Dr. Shufeldt, to the meadow larks. ‘These two species and the first of the following list, No. 7550, are from stratum No. 2 of the section. All other birds of this list are from stratum No. 3.
REPORT ON FossIL BIRDS FROM VERO, FLORIDA, BY R. W. SHUFELDT
No. 7550. The right humerus, nearly perfect, of a teal. This bone I have carefully compared with all the humeri of our smaller existing ducks of various genera. It comes quite close to Querquedula discors, but belonged to a different species of that genus. I propose to describe it as Querquedula floridana.
No. 6934. This is the distal moiety of the right tibio-tarsus of a barn owl (Tyto pratincola). The condyles are slightly chipped off posteriorly.
No. 6773. Distal half of the right tarso-metatarsus of a water bird; probably a Larus, about the size of Larus atricilla. Whether this belonged to the same specimen as the next (No. 6933) I cannot say.
No. 6933. Left carpo-metacarpus of some tern or gull; I am inclined to believe, from the slight preponderance of characters, a gull of the genus Larus. It was a considerably larger species than Larus atricilla, but comes close to it. It was also a larger bird than Stirna maxema. I have compared it with the corresponding bone in many species of terns and gulls. Apparently it does not represent any of our existing forms. For this doubtless extinct species I propose the name of Larus vero.
No. 7552. Humerus (right side), imperfect; head of bone not recovered. Length of fragment 8.35 cm. No.6797. The shaft of an ulna of a large bird. No. 6932. Piece of a long bone, the shaft (humerus?) of some large bird. These three specimens too fragmentary for reference.
No. 7005 (in two pieces; smaller fragment not numbered). The left ulna of Cathartes aura.
No. 6774. The distal two-thirds of the left tarso-metatarsus (imperfect), of some heron (Ardea), larger than Nycticorax n. naevius. Not quite perfect enough for exact reference.
No. 6932. The distal portion of the left tarso-metatarsus of Ardea herodias (adult); the trochleae slightly abraded posteriorly.
No. 7554 (including three vertebrae). The two small vertebrae are from a bird, and belong to the distal end of the cervical chain. It is hardly possible to say to what kind of bird they belong, though they agree more or less with the posterior cervical vertebrae of several average waders. The large elongate vertebra is from the cervical region of another wader, a true heron of the genus Ardea. I have compared it with the corresponding bone in the neck of all our medium-sized waders, as herons, spoonbills, egrets, and many others, and I find that, in all particulars, it comes nearest to the same vertebra in Herodias
FOSSIL HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA 19
egretta. However, I would hardly feel justified in making a new species of this, unless it was associated with other bones belonging to the same skeleton. I would suggest, therefore, that it be set aside to await the discovery of additional material from the same locality and the same excavation.
In this little lot there still remains the distal extremity of a small right tarso-metatarsus, which is quite perfect as far as it goes. It belonged to some sort of average-sized wading bird, perhaps after the heron order, or a near ally. I have compared it with the corresponding part in some thirty skeletons of existing birds; but, while it comes pretty close to some of them, it presents departures of such a nature that it does not agree with any of them. I am not prepared to describe it as coming from a new and extinct bird; but I would suggest that it be set aside to await the discovery of additional material from the place where it was found.
No. 7551. This is the distal portion of a right tibio-tarsus of a heron some- what smaller than Ardea herodias, but specifically distinct from it. The con- dyles are considerably abraded, but otherwise the specimen is perfect as far as it goes. The intercondylar valley is narrower and shallower than we find it in Ardea herodias, and the anterior tendinal groove in the fossil rapidly con- tracts as it proceeds up the shaft, to become very narrow about 2 cm. above the osseous tendinal bridge. This is not the case in Ardea herodias, wherein the anterior surface of the shaft in that locality is flat, and barely exhibits any tendinal groove. There are a few other points of difference, which, taken in - connection with what is set forth above, inclines me to believe that this bone belonged to a heron of the genus Ardea, of about the same size as the existing Ardea herodias, but specifically distinct from it. For this apparently extinct heron IJ here propose the name of Ardea sellardsi.
No. 7ooo. An imperfect distal third of the right tarso-metatarsus of a large wader. Unfortunately, the trochleae are nearly all fractured off; still the characters of this bone are so pronounced that I have no hesitation in referring it to some species of Mycteria, and it probably belonged to a wood ibis, Mycteria americana, with which I have compared it. So far as the frag- ment goes, it does not seem to offer a sufficient number of characters to separate it from that species.
It is thus found that stratum No. 3 of the section at Vero con- tains extinct species of each of the three vertebrate classes—reptiles, birds, and mammals. Since this deposit, No. 3, rests upon the fossiliferous stratum, No. 2, it becomes necessary to inquire to what extent these fossils may possibly have washed from the underlying deposit. With regard to birds, those of No. 3 are more abundant both in specimens and in species than are those of No. 2. Moreover, the bird bones are fragile and would not withstand washing from
20 E. H. SELLARDS
one formation to another. That the extinct turtles do not repre- sent inclusions from the older formation is evident by the fact that practically complete carapaces are found, which in some instances are so delicate as not to stand so much as turning over without being broken. That the mammals referred to No. 3 are normal to that deposit is indicated both by the abundance of the bones and by their condition of preservation.
INTERPRETATION OF THE SECTION
It is desirable in this connection to consider the interpretation of the section as a whole, especially as to whether or not an appre- ciable period of time intervened between the deposition of divisions r and 2 of the section, and also between divisions 2 and 3. Asa rule, it is possible to recognize the dividing line between the marine stratum, No. 1, and the fresh-water deposit, No. 2. At such places, even though the marine shells are lacking in No. 1, there is a change in the texture, and usually also in the color, of the sand. Moreover, one finds rather commonly irregularities at the top of No. 1, which are due to stream wash. Occasionally there are also depressions or holes in the top of No. 1. Such holes, so far as observed, as previously stated in this paper, contain muck and decayed wood and sticks. However, notwithstanding this appar- ently well-marked break, there are other places where the dividing line between Nos. rx and 2 is evident neither by the change of texture of the sand nor by any change in color. At such places deposition appears to have been continuous from stratum No. 1 into stratum No. 2. On the other hand, there is at all places evidence of the change from marine to fresh-water deposition. Since the fossils of No. 1 are marine, while those of No. 2 are land forms, there is little opportunity of connecting the two divisions by means of the fauna. Aside from the one camel bone obtained at West Palm Beach, no land animals are known from No. r of this section.
In the preceding papers the writer has commented upon the abrupt break which normally exists between strata Nos. 2 and 3, a break which it seemed possible might be taken to indicate a con- siderable interval of time. The later observations of this section,
FOSSIL HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA 21
however, as previously stated in this paper, indicate that a part of the section heretofore referred to No. 2 is possibly the equivalent of No. 3. It seems not impossible, therefore, that the break between divisions 2 and 3, which is so evident throughout a large part of the section, may be due to local re-working by the stream of its own bed in Pleistocene time, and that the deposit designated as stratum No. 3 is itself a phase of stratum No. 2, being analogous to the smaller deposits of muck and decayed wood found near the base of No. 2, which are known to be inclusions within that stratum. On the question of the interrelation of the three divisions of the section, however, it will perhaps be necessary to await the accu- mulation of further evidence, both stratigraphic and paleontologic.
RELATION OF THE HUMAN REMAINS TO THE ASSOCIATED FOSSILS
It will scarcely be maintained that the human remains and artifacts obtained from stratum No. 3 are otherwise than normal to that deposit. ‘Their abundance, their general distribution, and their presence within and at the base of a stratified and undisturbed deposit preclude any reasonable contention that they are other- “ wise than contemporaneous with the associated materials of the deposit. The study of the fossils of this stratum, although not yet completed, has brought to light the presence of a considerable number of extinct species which suggest the reference of the deposit to the Pleistocene period.
Special interest is attached to the human remains and artifacts from stratum No. 2, this being the oldest deposit from which human material has been obtained. ‘This stratum is easily recog- nized, and at the present time may be followed on both the north and south banks of the canal through the whole section. The vertebrate fauna by which the Pleistocene age of the deposit is determined is also well represented in the collections that have been made at this locality. That the human bones are fossils normal to this stratum and contemporaneous with the associated vertebrates is determined by their place in the formation, their manner of occurrence, their intimate relation to the bones of other animals, and the degree of mineralization of the bones. The presence of flint spalls, and the probable presence of bone
22 E. H. SELLARDS
implements add support to the evidence obtained from the bones themselves.
The place of the human bones in the formation affords a strong argument for their contemporaneity with the associated fossils. Those human bones found in the south bank of the canal, 330 feet west of the bridge, lie beneath 18 inches of marl rock. The human bones found in the same bank, 462 feet west of the bridge, lie beneath 4 feet of stratified deposits consisting of alternating layers of sand and muck, which could not have been dug through and replaced without interrupting the continuity of the strata. Moreover, the presence of the muck, as well as the conditions of preservation of the plant remains, indicates that this locality has been continuously moist since the materials of both Nos. 2 and 3 were deposited. Aside from the improbability of locating a grave in a muck bed, it is probably impossible without special appliances to dig a grave through an undrained muck bed on account of the presence of ground-water. If it be suggested that the human remains in stratum No. 2 represent a burial, it must be recognized that the reference is not to a recent burial, but to a burial ante- dating the deposition or existence of stratum No. 3 of the section, and hence to an event that occurred probably within the Pleisto- cene period of time. ‘There is, however, strong evidence that the human remains in this deposit do not represent a burial by human agency, but are fossils normal to the stratum, having been included in the earth in the same way and at the same time that the other bones were buried in the accumulating deposits.
The manner of occurrence of the human bones is entirely similar to that of the other vertebrate fossils. Whole skeletons are not found, and, indeed, complete bones are by no means com- mon. On the contrary, the human bones as well as the bones of the other animals are scattered, imperfectly preserved, and fre- — quently broken. ‘The breaks in the bones are as a rule sharp- edged, and it would seem that in the case both of the human and of the other vertebrates the bones were more or less disturbed after they had lost enough of the organic matter to become sufficiently brittle to break as they were moved about by water before reaching their final resting-place. An illustration of the way in which the
FOSSIL HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA 23
bones were broken is afforded by a fragment from the shaft of a human limb bone, No. 6958. This piece of bone is broken with a sharp fracture at each end. The breaks are old and were made at the time that the bone was imbedded in the sand. The intimate association of the human and other fossils is difficult to explain except upon the recognition of their contemporaneity. The human astragalus and cuneiform were separated by a space of about to inches, and between them at the same level as the astragalus was the scapula of a deer. Bones from the skeletons of other animals were near by in the same stratum and have been described in the writer’s previous papers.
In the number of bones that have been obtained representing a single individual there is observed no important difference between the human and the other animals. The most nearly complete skeleton that has been obtained is that of an alligator. The next largest number of bones found, about thirty or thirty- five in number, from the skeleton of a single individual are those of the extinct wolf, Canis ayersi. Among the most perfectly pre- served individual bones that have been obtained from the deposit are those of the bird, Jabiru? weillsi, the femur of a horse, the lower jaw of Chlamytherium, and part of the skull and tusk of a proboscidian. Entirely surpassing any of the human bones in perfection of preservation is the skull of the extinct wolf and the skull of the tapir. The tapir skull, so far as the writer has been able to learn, is the first approximately complete skull of this animal that has been obtained from the Pleistocene of North America.
The degree of mineralization of the human bones is identical with that of the associated bones of the other animals, a fact that has been brought out in the papers previously published by the writer. The spall found in place in this stratum, as well as the several other flints obtained from siftings, is totally unlike any flint pebbles in the deposit. The reasonable explanation of the presence of these spalls in this stratum is that they washed in from the near-by land surface, together with the other materials of the deposit. In other words, they pertain to the Pleistocene period and were washed into the deposit at that time. The bone
24 E. H. SELLARDS
implements, although obtained from the siftings and hence not seen in place, are, with little doubt, to be attributed to the same source.
The presence of man in the Pleistocene of Europe has long been known, and his assumed absence from the Pleistocene of America is based entirely on negative evidence. How insecure as a basis of argument in paleontology is negative evidence has been repeat- edly demonstrated, and new groups with Old World affinities are constantly being recovered from the North American formations. A striking illustration is the eland obtained in 1913 by Gidley from the Pleistocene of Maryland, the relationship of which is closer to the modern eland of Africa than to any other known species, the dispersion and migration of the group having probably occurred _ during the Pleistocene period.t Another illustration is afforded by the bears. Heretofore, it has been assumed that members of the bear group were comparatively recent migrants to the New World, but during the past summer representatives of the true Ursidae were obtained practically simultaneously in Oregon? and in Florida.3 | Numerous other illustrations might be given, and in fact the rapidity with which new species are being obtained and described is evidence of our heretofore imperfect knowledge of the Pleistocene faunas. Man lived with and hunted Elephas primi- genius in Europe, and it is not improbable that he may have followed the spread of that species to America. ‘The evidence obtained at this new locality in Florida, supplementing the less positive evidence that has heretofore been available, affords proof that man reached America at an early date and was present on this Continent in association with a Pleistocene fauna.
«James Williams Gidley, ‘““An Extinct American Eland,” Smithsonian Miscel- laneous Collections, LX, No. 27 (March, 1913).
2 John C. Merriam, Chester Stock, and Clarence L. Moody, ‘‘An American Pliocene Bear,” Univ. of Cal. Publ., X, No. 7 (November 1, 1916).
3E. H. Sellards, “‘ Fossil Vertebrates from Florida,” Fla. Geol. Surv., Eighth Annual Report (October, 1916).
INTERPRETATION OF THE FORMATIONS CONTAINING HUMAN BONES AT VERO, FLORIDA
ROLLIN T. CHAMBERLIN University of Chicago
The formations of the locality involved in the interpretation of the age and relations of the fossil remains of man found near Vero, Florida, have been clearly described in the preceding paper by Dr. Sellards. The surface aspect of the region is plane and flat, relieved slightly by low beach ridges, gently rising dunes, and
Fic. 1.—Rough sketch showing merely the general relations of the features dis- cussed in the text.
shallow drainage flats, none of which are impressive features of the landscape, though all contribute valuable criteria to the inter- pretation. In its immediate bearings on the problem raised by the occurrence of human remains mingled with extinct vertebrates, the critical feature of this plain is the broad, shallow valley of Van Valkenburg’s Creek, whose former course—now much obscured by the recently dug drainage canal—is indicated in Figs. 1 and 2. It was in the bottom deposits of this wide stream channel, or in those of its predecessor, that the human bones in question were found. The past workings of this stream, therefore, require the
25
ZS
20 ROLLIN T. CHAMBERLIN
closest scrutiny. But before attempting to interpret the history of the stream, let us review briefly the geologic section at Vero, though we have little occasion to depart from the careful descrip- tion of Dr. Sellards. :
Beneath the stream deposits, as well as beneath the whole region under consideration, the oldest beds exposed to view belong to the Anastasia formation, a striking marine shell marl, often known as ‘‘coquina’”’ rock. Composed almost entirely of shells,
he Contour Interval 5 feet
~ Scale
Ss 100 200 . Feet
Fic. 2.—Detailed map of the locality where the human bones were found. The canal and the resulting dump piles have done much to change the original topography. The dotted area represents the flood plain of Van Valkenburg’s Creek as its appears to have been just prior to the digging of the canal. The first human skeleton was found in formation No. 2 at point marked M, the second at point NV, while human relics were found in formation No. 3 at point O as well as also near VV.
in most cases but little fragmented, its identity is always clear, and it thus affords a most excellent datum plane at the base of each section studied. Itis Dr. Sellards’ formation No. 1, and is assigned to the Pleistocene. In its upper portion it grades into beach sands containing here and there lenses and streaks of shells, and these, in turn, pass upward almost imperceptibly into fresh-water or wind- blown sands. This formation underlies both the area of Van
FOSSIL HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA 27,
Valkenburg’s Creek and the adjacent country, and thus far the sections are the same, but above this horizon the channel section and the upland, or country, section are totally unlike and will be described separately.
THE SECTION OF THE CREEK BOTTOMS
This is the section described by Dr. Sellards. It is now well exposed in the walls of the drainage canal which, for several hundred
Fic. 3.—The drainage canal, looking southwest from the Florida East Coast Railroad bridge to the spillway.
yards, cuts through the deposits of the old creek bottoms. Resting upon the eroded surface of formation No. 1, sometimes lying directly upon the coquina rock, sometimes resting upon the beach sand, or shore phase of No. 1, is Dr. Sellard’s formation No. 2. It is, as he has described it, a cross-bedded, river-washed sand, partly white, partly stained brown by organic matter, and contain- ing partially decayed wood and muck. At the top, in places, there is a fresh-water, clayey marl. This formation contains human bones essentially in sztu, beyond reasonable doubt, together
28 ROLLIN T. CHAMBERLIN
with the scattered bones of many extinct vertebrates, as main- tained in the previous paper. It is, therefore, the critical formation of the section, and upon its age and mode of origin the case of Pleistocene man stands or falls.
Above formation No. 2, and, at most points, sharply separated from it by a clear-cut line of erosion, is an alluvial deposit, forma- tion No. 3 of Sellards. ‘This is composed of swamp muck in many layers, interstratified with layers and lenses of coarse sand. Its top is the present flood-plain surface of Van Valkenburg’s Creek.
INTERPRETATION OF THE CREEK SECTION
Following the deposition of the marine coquina, a withdrawal of the sea gradually brought this region into the horizon of terres- trial action. In the transition, beach conditions prevailed, result- ing in sandy deposits, partly marine, partly terrestrial. These finally gave way to eolian sands. An interval of unknown duration followed. At some later time a stream occupying essentially the same course as that which, just prior to the construction of the canal, was followed by Van Valkenburg’s Creek excavated a channel which, in some places, was cut through into the coquina. The notable width of this channel in proportion to its very shallow depth—which was limited by sea-level—suggests that erosive action was in progress for a considerable time at least. But as Dr. Sellards has remarked, tidal scour may have been an acces- sory factor in the development of the breadth of the channel. There are today in the strip of coast between Sebastian and Eau Gallie several such broad, shallow channels up which the tide runs. But if tidal scour is appealed to, it must be interpreted so as to be consistent with the fact that there were deposited in the Vero channel, not only muck and washed sands, but also human bones, together with many scattered bones from a variety of extinct vertebrates. The interpretation must also be in harmony with the specific fact that the human bones were found to be notably less scattered and fragmentary than the bones of the extinct verte- brates.
Some erosion of the surface of this No. 2 formation seems clearly to have occurred, since its upper surface is a sharp line,
FOSSIL HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA 29
and this is most naturally interpreted as implying change of atti- tude or of relations, as well as an erosion interval. After such erosion it was covered by the alluvial deposit, No. 3. Because of the large proportion of muck, and the extremely rapid shifting from muck-accumulating to sand-depositing conditions, as revealed by the many alternating layers and lenses of sand and muck, this
Fic. 4.—The creek section freshly exposed by cutting back into the south bank of the drainage canal at a point about 440 feet southwest of the railroad bridge: I represents the ‘‘coquina”’ rock grading upward into light-colored sands; 2 is Sellards’ formation No. 2, which is here sand largely stained dark brown; note that it fills a trench cut in No. 1; 3 is Sellards’ formation No. 3, consisting of alternating muck and coarse sands. Large log projects conspicuously on the right.
is interpreted as a flood-plain deposit. Its upper surface consti- tuted the flood-plain of Van Valkenburg’s Creek prior to 1913, when the drainage canal was dug.
THE UPLAND OR COUNTRY SECTION
Downstream.—Though the surrounding country is not elevated, the general section outside the valley of the creek may be desig- nated the upland, or country, section. Downstream from the
30 ROLLIN T. CHAMBERLIN
locality where the human bones were found the country section adjacent to Van Valkenburg’s Creek commences with the coquina rock at the bottom, just as does the section of the creek bottom. The coquina beds are followed by 2-5 feet of variously tinted sands. An orange-brown, ferruginous sand is a very persistent phase. These sands become dark-brown to blackish at the top, but are not very firmly indurated. At most points this sandy deposit forms the present surface, but in some isolated areas it is capped by a pondlike deposit of drab-colored, clayey, fresh-water marl. As this is being utilized for road material, the clay marl areas have been opened up to view and their extent is well known.
The south bank of the canal one-third of a mile east of the Florida East Coast Railroad bridge gives the following section: 0) Drab-colored; clayey, fresh-water marley jee eetansiee esis) ei aje- sore 2) 5B
n) Dark-brownish, mottled sand, lighter colored below, getting darker above and at the top showing nearly black material, indicating an old
The tract represented by this section lies nearer the coast than ' the locality where the human bones were found in the stream deposits, and hence has less specific bearing on our problem than the upland section of the tract adjacent to the creek above the critical locality. a hi ;
Upstream.—The upstream section was found to be somewhat different from the coastward section as given above. Approxi- mately 200 feet southwest (upstream) from the point where the human relics were discovered the waters of the drainage canal pass over a spillway and drop about 9 feet. This spillway is west of the junction of the two tributary branches of Van Valkenburg’s Creek and lies outside the creek valley. For the first half-mile west of the spillway the canal has been cut through the following succession of beds:
d) Pure-white, coarse-grained, wind-blown quartz sand............. 4-7 it. c) Soft, spongy, peaty layer, containing many partially decayed roots; in: places; absent 4 ei sW4iy Pe aa sled aE Co OA REN ea Sen cs NU Sana o-6 in.
b) Dark-brown to true-black, firmly indurated sand or sandstone; cemented by ferric hydroxide and organic matter, but the color of iron staining is largely obscured by the organic black........... 2-4 ft.
FOSSIL HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA at
a) Brown sand gradually losing its dark stain and passing downward into a reddish-brown sand stained by iron oxide, and finally grading into a buff sand below, which is of finer grain than that above, and MT AVA OOSSIO LYM COMIATINE tyeiite nein Lok Lk avai E NTC iil 3-4. tt.
There is no sharp division between (a) and (6). For at least another half-mile west the section changes in no essential feature except that the wind-blown sand (d) gradually
Fic. 5.—The creek section on south bank of drainage canal, 465-70 feet from the bridge. This face, now dug back many feet from the original drainage canal bank, is approximately the spot where the second human skeleton was found in formation No. 2 (marked N on map, Fig. 2). Formations Nos. 2 and 3 displayed.
thins until, at one mile from the spillway, there are barely two feet of it. The coquina rock does not appear above the water- level in the canal during the first mile west of the spillway, though it is said to reappear some distance farther west.
INTERPRETATION OF THE UPLAND SECTION
Following the deposition of the marine coquina beds, semi- marine, semi-terrestrial beach sands, and, later, eolian sands accumulated to a thickness of perhaps 6-8 feet over much of the
32 ROLLIN T. CHAMBERLIN
country immediately northwest of Vero. In spots the thickness was less, but at other points, no doubt, dunes as well as beach ridges made its total more than this. A widespread peaty layer at the top of this formation strongly suggests that, following the deposition of these sands, bog conditions existed for a period in the area west of the spillway. The upper two or three feet of the sands of layer 6 are very firmly cemented by iron oxide, and are
Fic. 6.—Section of uplands, exposed in north bank of drainage canal, one-third mile southwest of spillway: B represents layer b, consisting of indurated black sand or sandstone, capped in the left half of the picture by peat (layer c); Dis layer d, white eolian sands, resting upon the Pleistocene bog surface. Above is the material exca- vated in making the canal.
deeply stained by organic matter, implying that this horizon con- stituted the subsurface for a long time. Iron oxide cement is, as is well known, common in bog deposits. A reason for an extensive wet area, or bog, to the west of the spillway is readily found in a broad beach ridge near the spillway which interfered with the drainage of the tract lying west (see Fig. 1).
The present coast, in a way, serves as an example of similar relations. The east coast of Florida is flanked by a barrier sand
FOSSIL HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA 33
ridge for 300 miles; for over 100 miles the barrier incloses a strip of water between it and the mainland, known as the Indian River, though it is really a salt-water sound. Paralleling the present coastal barrier and the Indian River behind it is an older barrier ridge which crosses the canal near the spillway and runs for many miles both north and south of Vero. To the west of it, before the drainage canal was dug, the region was frequently
Fic. 7.—The present upland country southwest of the spillway. The area of the Pleistocene bog. Drainage canal in foreground with tributary canal in middle distance. Lumps of the black sandstone conspicuous upon dump piles of both canals.
under water after storms, according to testimony, and in earlier times it presumably was more continuously marshy, since it more nearly approached the present condition of the Indian River.
But with uplift, or withdrawal of the sea, the marsh was grad- ually drained, and a thin covering of wind-blown white sand drifted over the old bog surface, burying it to a depth of several feet. This wind-blown sand forms layer d and constitutes the present upland surface.
34 ROLLIN T. CHAMBERLIN
CORRELATION OF CREEK-BOTTOM SECTION WITH UPLAND SECTION
For the complete history of the district it is necessary to cor- relate the creek-bottom section with the upland, or country, section. The coquina is common to both and serves as a base of reference. If we turn to the upland section as it is developed just west of the junction of the two forks of Van Valkenburg’s Creek, we observe that the most striking feature there shown is the almost perfectly black, indurated sand bed, or sandstone, which forms a persistent layer, in places capped by peat, beneath the surficial wind-blown sands. If the creek deposits were younger than the induration of this sandstone, evidence of such relative age might well be found in the incorporation of derivatives from the black sandstone in the creek deposit, for, if the age and induration were considerable, the sandstone should have been of sufficient hardness to supply the two forks of the creek with pebbles and cobbles of this very easily recognizable material. *Now an inspection of the freshly cleaned face of Dr. Sellards’ formation No. 2—the critical formation—reveals the presence in it of many small pebbles, and not a few round ‘‘cannon balls,” of this black sandstone (see Fig. 8). The latter range up to 5 inches in diameter. They are not confined to any one layer, but are scattered through No. 2 forma- tion from top to bottom. Thus the formation in which the human bones and the extinct vertebrate remains were found also contains - numerous pebbles and cobbles of black sandstone from the older formation! ‘The stream which deposited formation No. 2 formed these pebbles of black sandstone by erosive action on stratum b of the upland section, through which both the north fork and the south fork of Van Valkenburg’s Creek have obviously cut their stream channels. This black layer underlies apparently all the country immediately to the west of the spillway; it is a continuous, persistent layer; it was traced im situ to within 150 feet of where the human remains were found, and with further digging it could probably be traced still nearer. There is no other known source for the pebbles of black sandstone. The conclusion seems, there- fore, inevitable that Dr. Sellards’ formation No. 2 is younger than stratum b of the upland section—the old bog surface upon which the peat accumulated. Furthermore, it would seem to be considerably
FOSSIL HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA 35
younger, inasmuch as the old bog-covered sands had, since their formation, endured for a time sufficient to permit their upper por- tion to become firmly cemented by iron oxide into a fairly indurated sandstone.
INTERPRETED HISTORY OF THE BONES
As is well described in Dr. Sellards’ paper, human bones were found in situ in formation No. 2, in close association with scattered
Fic. 8.—The creek section on south bank of drainage canal, about 460 feet south- west from railroad bridge. Many small pebbles (size of marbles) of black sandstone here form a band in the lower portion of formation No. 2.
bones and fragments of bones from a great variety of extinct mam- mals, including the Columbian elephant, mastodon, saber-tooth tiger, tapir, armadillo, sloth, bison, camel, horse, etc. This verte- brate fauna, according to Dr. O. P. Hay,’ would seem to represent the early Pleistocene. But it should be noted again that, while the human bones make up quite a part of two skeletons, the bones of the extinct vertebrates are fragmentary and extremely scat- tered. This fact, that the remains of the ancient vertebrates are
t Personal statement on the ground.
36 ROLLIN T. CHAMBERLIN
very fragmentary, by itself suggests that they have been disturbed and transported to a greater or less extent. On the contrary, the human bones, so much less scattered as to indicate that they belong to distinct individual skeletons, imply that they have suffered much less disturbance.
The history of the bones seems to unravel as follows: For along time during the Pleistocene there existed a marshy area of con- siderable extent immediately to the west of the present location of the spillway. Peat accumulated in the bog, forming layer c of the upland section. In the course of its growth, various animal remains of the time became incorporated. The large vertebrates were no doubt often mired, and left their bones in the bog. This is a familiar process.
During and following the accumulation of the bog and the bones, the upper portion of the sandy formation that lies beneath the peat (stratum 6) became indurated to sandstone by the infil- tration of iron oxide. At the same time it was stained black by the decomposition products of the decaying organic matter that lay over it.
With further passage of time the large land vertebrates, one after another, became extinct in the region. In the course of time also man appeared in Florida. At some time subsequent to the growth of the bog, probably as the result of a slight uplift, Van Valkenburg’s Creek and its branches, or their antecedents, cut channels across the beach ridge and into the peat deposit, the two forks apparently following essentially the courses which they hold today. The drainage lines thus established cut, not only into the Pleistocene bog deposits, but into the sands beneath. With the draining of the bog and the adjacent land the movement of sand by wind action was perhaps facilitated, and the dune formation (layer d) which covers the old bog surface west of the spillway may have been formed during the drainage stage. It is not incon- sistent, however, to suppose that it was formed before the drainage was established.
Later came the stages of partial filling of the creek channel. The first stage was occupied by the deposition of formation No. 2 of Sellards. The material for this formation was derived from the
FOSSIL HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA 3a
upland section drained by the creek, not a little of it from layer 6, as shown by the pebbles of black sandstone. The whiter portion of the sands of the stream deposit may have come from either layer a or from layer d of the upland section. To layers 6 and ¢ are assigned the bones of the extinct vertebrates together with the pebbles and cobbles of black sandstone. While this deposition of formation No. 2 was in progress, the human bones are believed to
Fic. 9.—The present dry channel of Van Valkenburg’s Creek just beyond the reaches of the drainage canal.
have received their first and only burial in connection with the stream deposit. ‘The human bones should thus naturally be less scattered than the fragments of the mammals which had been shifted from their original location into the stream channel.
Following the deposition of formation No. 2 there was a period of erosion, either in the form of the ordinary scour-and-fill process of streams or as a result of ordinary subaerial denudation. A change in the stream conditions following the erosion stage caused a very heterogeneous alluvial flood-plain deposit (Sellards’ forma- tion No. 3) to be laid upon the irregular surface of formation No. 2.
38 ROLLIN T. CHAMBERLIN
Muck accumulated in alternation with layers of sand, as recurring floods from heavy tropical storms carried coarse material before them.
To this formation No. 3—just as in the case of formation No. 2 —the upland bog area contributed many bones of extinct verte- brates as well as pebbles of black sandstone. At the same time human bones, pottery, and bits of flint (which does not outcrop in the region) were mingled with the flood-plain deposit, more or less directly, it would appear, as the result of human activity. There thus again came to be close assemblage of all this varied material in this formation, just as there had previously been in formation No. 2.
These conditions are interpreted as having been continued with
little change (except on the human side) till the present, for pebbles of black sandstone and bones of extinct vertebrates are found i the deposit of the present creek bed into which formation No. 3 merges.
Two sets of evidence developed by Dr. Sellards need to be explained if we are to accept the sequence of events above outlined. Chemical analyses are cited as showing that the fossil human bones from No. 2 are quite as well mineralized as are the associated bones of the Pleistocene animals. Compared with a bone from an Indian mound near Vero, the chief difference is that the bones from No. 2 (human and other) have lost from 6 to 8 per cent of moisture and from g to 11 per cent of volatile matter. The loss of these easily eliminated constituents caused a proportionate increase in the percentage of calcium and phosphoric acid. But there was, in addition, an actual infiltration of silica, etc., from 0.4 to 2.9 per cent, and of iron and aluminum oxides from 0.6 to 3.5 per cent. While indicative of considerable age, it must be admitted that we do not know how rapidly bones are thus altered in sandy river beds’ when the adjacent sands contain abundant iron oxide.
A carapace of the turtle, Terrapene innoxia Hay, taken from formation No. 2 complete, though it was very fragile at the time of discovery, and the skull of a large wolf, Canis ayersi Sellards, are taken as evidence that the bones of the vertebrates were not trans- ported from some other point by the creek. The turtle carapace was too fragile in the fossilized condition in which it was found to admit of stream transportation, though perhaps it could have
FOSSIL HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA 39
endured transportation before fossilization. But if the interpre- tation of the history of the region be as outlined above, it would not seem unreasonable to suppose (in case it be definitely estab- lished that these species have been extinct in the region since the close of the Pleistocene) that the turtle carapace and the wolf skull, and other similar parts, had been subjected to a minimum of transportation wear because originally buried in the upland forma- tion close to the spot where they were found, and that they were carried into the channel fill by the caving of the river bank, or some similar operation involving little wear. In no case was the trans- portation great. The other bones found in No. 2 and No. 3, in the opinion of the writer, give as much evidence of wear and polishing as would be expected of bones that were washed only short dis- tances (from the upland bog to the places in the channel where they were found) by the flood stages of the creek.
Formation No. 3, therefore, seems to the writer to be very recent geologically, as it is the flood-plain alluvium of the present Van Valkenburg’s Creek. The age of formation No. 2 can be determined less positively. It is simply older than No. 3 and younger than the Pleistocene bog deposits that lie west of the spill- way, but it is the opinion of the writer that it is much nearer in age to No. 3 than it is to the Pleistocene bog accumulation and associated deposits which originally housed the old mammalian bones.
ON REPORTED PLEISTOCENE HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA
THOMAS WAYLAND VAUGHAN! United States Geological Survey
Topographic relations.—Vero, a village on the Florida East Coast Railway, 228 miles south of Jacksonville, in St. Lucie County,’ is situated on the surface of the Pensacola terrace, the lowest and youngest of the three Pleistocene terraces recognized in Florida by Matson,’ and is about one mile west of the western shore of Indian River, between which and the Atlantic Ocean lies the great barrier beach of east Florida. The terrace plain presents the physiographic aspect of early youth, as it is almost flat and is only slightly trenched by rather indefinite drainage courses. Its surface stands between 1o and 15 feet above sea-level, ex- cept along an elevated barrier beach which lies some 600 or 700 feet west of the railroad, where the altitude may be as much as to to 15 feet higher. The human remains were found in a slight depression along a drainage course across the terrace surface at localities about half a mile north of Vero and between 330 and 580 feet west of the railroad, and were exposed as a result of the excavation of the Indian River Farms Company drainage canal.
Geologic relations.—Dr. Sellards has in three papers‘ presented detailed descriptions of the geologic section exposed along the
« Published by permission of the Director of the United States Geological Survey.
2 See the map of State of Florida, scale 1/500,000, issued by the United States Geo- logical Survey in 1916, and the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey Chart No. 163.
3“Geology and Ground Waters of Florida,’ U.S. Geol. Survey, Water-Supply Paper 319, pp. 31-35, Pl. 5, 1913.
4“Discovery of Fossil Human Remains in Florida in Association with Extinct Vertebrates,” Amer. Jour. Sci., XLII (July, 1916), 1-18; ‘‘Human Remains and Associated Fossils from the Pleistocene of Florida,’ Eighth Ann. Rept. Florida Geol. Survey, 1916, pp. 122-60, Pls. 15-31; ‘‘Human Remains from the Pleistocene of Florida,’ Science, N.S., XLIV (1916), 615-17.
40
FOSSIL HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA 41
canal from the Florida East Coast Railway on the east to a point about 580 feet westward from it. The stratigraphic succession may be summarized as follows: (1) The lowest observed bed is an arenaceous shell marl of Pleistocene age, the exposed thickness of which is from 2 to 6 feet. (2) Unconformably above bed No. 1 are sands, some muck, and marl, having a combined thickness ranging up to as muchas 5 or 6 feet. This formation was deposited in fresh water and contains numerous species of vertebrates, which clearly indicate its Pleistocene age, and shells of about 30 species of land and fresh-water mollusks. The discovery of a locality at which so many species of extinct vertebrates are represented is of much geologic interest and importance. Within the sands human remains were found at two places, according to Dr. Sellards. (3) Overlying No. 2 is a deposit of muck, tree trunks, and other vegetable matter, in which are stringers of sand, in places con- taining marine shells, perhaps derived from bed No. 1 by erosion farther upstream. This deposit was accumulated in a shallow, relatively wide, channel eroded in No. 2, and has a thickness of 3 feet 6 inches in the middle of the channel, but it is much thinner on the channel sides. Whether its geologic age is Pleistocene or Recent has not been positively determined. Dr. Sellards reports human bones from near the base of this bed and from sands which lie at its base along the contact with No. 2."
Criteria for determining the geologic age of the human remains.— Previous investigations having shown that human artifacts may, by many agencies, be carried below the surface of the ground and become imbedded in unconsolidated deposits, and as it is well known that human bones may have been either naturally or arti- ficially buried, the occurrence of artifacts and human bones in association with Pleistocene fossils does not prove the Pleistocene age of man. It seems to me that the only indisputable geologic proof of the Pleistocene age of man must consist in finding a con- tinuous undisturbed bed or layer of demonstrable Pleistocene age above the human remains (artifacts or bones) whose age is under investigation. The relative dissociation and the significance of
t Fighth Ann. Rept. Florida Geol. Survey, 1916, pp. 140-42, Pl. 17, Fig. 1, text Fig. 14.
42 THOMAS WAYLAND VAUGHAN
the mineralization of the vertebrate (including the human) bones is discussed by others.
Conclusions.—As bed No. 3 may be of recent geologic age, the presence of human bones in it does not now need special consider- ation. With regard to the remains in bed No. 2 it will be said that as intrusion into it may have been accomplished either by natural or by artificial processes subsequent to its deposition; the presence of the human remains in it, in my opinion, is not definite proof of their Pleistocene age. However, should it be postively shown that in bed No 3 Pleistocene fossils occur in place above the human remains, showing that subsequent to the death of the individual represented by these remains Pleistocene species belonging to other groups of organisms lived and died, the evidence in favor of the Pleistocene age of the human remains would be conclusive. On the other hand, should it be proved that bed No. 3 is of Recent age, the human remains might be of either Pleistocene or Recent age, and it is doubtful if positive criteria for determining their age will be available unless the needed information is furnished by the human bones themselves. As the accurate determination of the geologic age of bed No. 3, especially that part of it perpendicularly above the human remains, seems to me to be critical, it is my opinion that, for the present, judgment should be suspended.
¥ 7
PRELIMINARY REPORT ON FINDS OF SUPPOSEDLY ANCIENT HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA
ALES HRDLICKA United States National Museum, Washington, D.C.
On the kind invitation of Dr. E. H. Sellards, state geologist of Florida, and as his guest, the writer in the latter part of October, 1916, spent four days at Vero, Florida, where his time was devoted to the study of the site from which certain human bones described by Dr. Sellards were obtained, and to a preliminary examination of the bones themselves.
Generous assistance in this work was rendered by Dr. Sellards and his associate, Mr. Gunter, as well as by the two local gentlemen most directly interested in these finds, namely, Messrs. Ayers and Weills, to whom the writer wishes to express his grateful acknowledgments.
On arriving at Vero the writer engaged workmen and with their aid made a clean exposure about 160 feet in length of the geological deposits in close proximity to the spots where the human bones had been discovered. ‘This afforded a comprehensive and enlighten- ing view of all the formations involved.
The two human skeletons had been found in the south bank of a recently excavated drainage canal. They occurred one in fairly close proximity to, and the other within the broad shallow bed of, a small fresh-water stream, now drained by a lateral cut from the canal. The former lay in dark and somewhat indurated sands, layer No. 2 of Sellards, the latter for the most part at the base of layer No. 3, the muck deposit of the stream bed, and “between this and the next older stratum” (Sellards). A few smaller bones which probably belonged to the second skeleton were found at about the same level and at a short distance from the rest of the remains in a small elevation of the irregularly eroded upper surface of the lower sandy layer No. 2.
43
AA ALES HRDLICKA
The first skeleton lay at the depth of two and a half feet, the second at the depth of from two to possibly three and a half feet from the surface.t. The first was found accidentally and taken out by Messrs. Ayers and Weills, before Dr. Sellards was notified, and before any great importance was attached to the find. The character of the deposits above it was not especially noticed, but there is no reason for supposing that they differed from those in the neighborhood, where layer No. 2 is seen to be overlain by a stratum of similar, but somewhat lighter, sandy deposits covered by a layer of marl. This marl ranges at this point from about 5 to 9 inches in thickness, and when freshly exposed is of the consistency of fresh mortar, but on exposure hardens to fairly solid rock. With some wind-blown white sand and oie. material it forms the surface of the ground.
The second skeleton lay, according to vt obtainable information, in some loose white sand and vegetable matter at the base of the muck layer, No. 3, of the stream bed. Above, up to the surface, there was only muck with irregular sandy patches. In a vertical cut these localized deposits or patches give the muck an appear- ance of unconnected irregular lamination, but there are no actual strata.
Skeleton No. I is that of a woman, possibly sub-adult. Skele- ton No. II is that of a man, an adult of somewhat advanced years. The bones of the former, according to Mr. Ayers, who discovered and extracted them, “were all close together, the whole layer not being over one and one-half feet in width. They were not scattered at all, nor piled up.” The various parts lay side by side or next to one another in about the position they would occupy in the body. The bones of skeleton No. II were dissociated, though lying within an ellipse apparently about 7 feet in length, not counting the two bones and two or three fragments found in the upper part of layer No. 2, about 6 feet away. As some of the bones of the skeleton tumbled out of the bank before the rest were removed, only a smaller portion of the parts representing the skeleton were examined
1 In Dr. Sellards’ report on the find, in the 8th Ann. Rep. of the Fla. St. Geol. Survey,
p. 142, the depth is given as 4 feet, which is evidently an error; the depth indicated in Dr. Sellards’ illustrations, especially that on p. 141, is less than this.
FOSSIL HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA 45
im situ and their exact association must remain in a large measure uncertain. ‘The skeleton lay in an inclined plane. The bones show no trace of washing or weathering. The majority of them are broken, but many of the breaks are sharp and evidently fresh,
Fic. 1.—Top view of skull of skeleton No. II, from the base of muck bed (layer No. 3), south bank of the drainage canal, Vero. c=clay; portion of frontal bleached by exposure.
dating probably from the time when parts of the skeleton were exposed in the bank or tumbled out of it.
Bones of three other individuals are found in the collection made by Dr. Sellards’ party. They are a juvenile or a young adult incisor tooth from layer No. 3, in the vicinity of skeleton No. II; a tooth of a young child from stratum 3 on the opposite
46 ALES HRDLICKA
or north side of the canal, and a toe bone of an adult, also from the north side of the canal.
In the muck layer on the south side, in the base of which skeleton No. II occurred, there were found, according to Dr. Sellards, “an abundance of pottery, many bone implements, arrowheads, and other small flints.”
Speaking further on this point, Dr. Sellards says (p. 143):
A considerable amount of broken pottery is found in this horizon, par- ticularly at the locality on the south bank 450 to 475 feet [bones of skeleton No. II were located from about 460 to 473 feet] west of the bridge. Bone implements are also numerous and were made evidently to serve a diversity of purposes. Well-worked flint arrowheads are found also, as well as occasional spalls from the manufacture of flints. The pottery, flints, and bone imple- ments, however, are not confined to this locality on the south bank, but are found also in the same horizon on the opposite side of the canal.
A few small flints and two bone implements were found in stratum No. 2 (p. 140). The flint of the several chips and imple- ments, which must have been brought from a considerable distance, is quite similar in the two deposits; and the bone implements of the two sections seem identical in character.
The portion of the muck of the stream bed on the south side of the canal nearest where the bones of skeleton No. II were dis- covered was found to be a moderately compressed, wet mass of leaves and other detritus. Many of the leaves, though generally imperfect, were still so pliable that they could be unfolded and straightened out, and were still fairly elastic. In this muck are trunks of trees and branches or roots, partly in a fair state of preservation, partly softened or rotted.
During the clearing work carried on by the writer, fossil animal bones were found to be fairly numerous in layer No. 2, beneath the muck of the stream bed. There were uncovered possibly several hundred specimens of this nature. They were isolated, small and large fragments, some apparently waterworn, with a few individual bones, and parts of turtle shells. The largest individual specimen was the tooth of a large herbivore. Two or three frag- mentary fossilized bones were also obtained from a sandy band in the lowest portion of the muck deposit.
FOSSIL HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA 47
The foregoing comprises in brief the writer’s personal observa- tions at Vero, with the exception of those on the human bones themselves. After a careful’ weighing of the facts, both on the spot and afterward, he regrets that he cannot agree with the con- clusions reached by Dr. Sellards as to their antiquity. It seems to him that there is another possible and more likely explanation of their occurrence in the deposits than that which would make
Fic. 2.—Right side of skull belonging to skeleton II (frontal bone, light from exposure, on the right, occiput on the left).
them contemporaneous with the various fossil animals the remains of which are found in the same layers, and some of which may date from the middle or even early Pleistocene.
A relatively small amount of work brought to light the remains of five human individuals—a small child, an adolescent or young adult, a young woman, and two adult men. In the vicinity of these occurred a quantity of pottery fragments, resembling closely the usual Florida variety, bone implements, and stone imple- ments with chips, and all in proximity to, or in, the bed of a
48 ALES HRDLICKA
fresh-water stream. To the anthropologist the various finds. strongly suggest an ordinary “station,” or inhabited site, with burials of probably prehistoric, but not necessarily very ancient, man, whose culture horizon corresponded to that of the ordinary American aborigines of the eastern and southeastern states.
The two human skeletons occurred at nearly the same depth, which would be about that of a common Indian burial. ‘The bones of the one were in close and natural association; those of the other, buried in or just below the unstable muck, though dissociated, yet remained fairly well aggregated, preserving some original relations. The condition of these remains, contrasted with that of the animal fossils with which they were associated, is instructive. ‘The num- ber of individual fossil animal specimens recovered by the local explorers, Dr. Sellard’s party, and the visiting scientists would doubtless reach several thousands, and they were with a few exceptions isolated bones or teeth or mere fragments, many of which were hardly worth collecting.
The occurrence of isolated fossil animal bones or fragments in contact with, or even above, the human skeleton would have no significance. In digging a grave the earth thrown out might well contain fossils even of considerable size, which, after the body was introduced, would be thrown in about or above it.
The apparently undisturbed condition of the partial and irregular sandy layers which occur in the muck where skeleton No. II was discovered could hardly be regarded as sufficient proof that the bones were not introduced from above. The muck and sand thrown in over a body would tend in the course of time so completely to assume the appearance and characteristics of the original deposits that distinction between the two would be quite impossible. Very good examples of restratification and striation are seen at Vero in the accumulations thrown out from the canal by the dredges.
The human bones are considerably ‘‘fossilized.” But they are not fossilized equally in the two skeletons,‘ nor even in the different parts of one and the same skeleton. The mineralization also is not
« The considerably smaller female astragalus weighs 26 grams, the much larger male bone but 20.7 grams.
FOSSIL HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA 49
quite like that of the animal bones from the same deposits, though the approach, especially in parts of skeleton No. II, is close. Even if they were identical, however, in this respect, the fact could not be taken as a gauge of their contemporaneity with the animal bones. Mineralization is a chemical-mechanical process, which runs its course slowly or rapidly, according to circumstances. Under similar conditions two bones, ages apart, would ‘‘fossilize”’ in a similar manner; but one of the bones would have completed the process long before the other. The writer has dealt with this subject in his report on “Ancient Man in North and South Amer- ica.”? In the corresponding work on North America will also be found described examples of human bones, petrified in different ways, from the west coast of Florida. One of the skeletons from that locality, in the possession of the United States National -Museum, is apparently even more completely petrified than the human bones from Vero. In Florida, mineralization of bones or their inclusion in geological deposits has little chronological significance.
The ‘‘fresh-water marl” that covers the deposits in the locality of skeleton No. I is not found over the muck layer, or layer No. 3, from which came skeleton No. II, but the point is immaterial. The layer, except where exposed, is not or is but partly consolidated; and even if it were solid it would have little bearing on the antiquity of whatever may lie underneath. The writer found a very good demonstration of this after he left Vero, on the Demere Key, off Fort Myers on the west coast of Florida, and not very far south of the latitude of Vero. He found there a low sand burial mound the entire surface of which, consisting of sand, organic matter and shells, materials gathered from the vicinity of the mound and from the seashore, was consolidated to the depth of from four to sixteen inches to such a degree that in places it was almost impossible to penetrate it with a mattock. This “rock’’ included numerous human bones, even skulls, a series of which is now in the National Museum. Its age is possibly post-Columbian, for there were found on the Key fragments of Spanish pottery and glass, while burial sand mounds on neighboring keys yielded glass beads.
t Bureau American Ethnology Bulls. 33 and 52.
50 ALES HRDLICKA
In considering these problems the anthropological characteris- tics of the bones themselves deserve serious consideration. They now lie before the writer, and he has not found as yet a single feature in which they would not agree with recent, more especially Indian, bones. The juvenile or young adult incisor tooth presents in a typical way the highly specialized characteristic form of the Indian middle upper incisor; what there is of the lower jaw is wholly of modern form; the skull of skeleton No. II by its lack of thickness, good size, and subdued supraorbital ridges is actually of a type superior to that of a large majority of the Florida Indians; and the shape and dimensions of the other bones are those of a man of the present day. There is nothing which would remind the anthropologist of early man.
In conclusion the writer wishes to submit that besides all the foregoing considerations there are broader anthropological and archaeological problems which should receive due attention in all cases of this nature. ‘They are both cultural and anthropological, and their discussion must be reserved for the detailed report. It may, however, be here briefly pointed out that an advanced state of culture such as that shown by the pottery, bone implements, and worked stone (brought from a considerable distance) implies a numerous population, spread over large areas, acquainted thor- oughly with fire, with cooking food, and with all the usual primitive arts. Such a population would surely have left many tangible traces of their presence on the Continent, some of which at least — would by this time have been discovered.
It is the opinion of the writer, as the result of his investigations, that the human bones found at Vero may well be prehistoric, and date from the early part of the occupation of the Florida peninsula by the Indians; but that no proof is furnished by the circumstances of the find, or by the human bones themselves, which would relegate the latter to an antiquity comparable with that of the fossil remains with which they are associated.
ADDENDUM
While at Vero the writer obtained from Mr. Weills 20 frag- ments of pottery recovered from the Vero deposits. In addition to this, two fragments were obtained from the sand mound on the
FOSSIL HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA 51
Indian River. This pottery was submitted for examination to Professor Holmes, and his report follows:
December 1, 1916. Dear Docror HRDiicKA:
I have examined with great care the pottery fragments obtained from the site of the discovery of human remains associated with Pleistocene deposits near Vero, Florida. They represent moderately small, undecorated vessels, apparently simple bowls such as were in common use among the Indian tribes of Florida. Compared with corresponding plain vessel fragments from Florida sand mounds and from occupied sites generally, no significant dis- tinctions can be made; in material, thickness of walls, finish of rim, surface finish, color, state of preservation, and size and shape of vessels represented, all are identical. There thus appears not the least ground in the evidence of the specimens themselves for the assumption that the Vero pottery pertains to any other people than the mound-building Indian tribes of Florida or to any other than Columbian and immediately pre-Columbian time.
Sincerely yours, W. H. Hotmes Head Curator, Depariment of Anthropology
THE QUATERNARY DEPOSITS AT VERO, FLORIDA, AND THE VERTEBRATE REMAINS CONTAINED THEREIN
OLIVER P. HAY Research Associate, Carnegie Institution of Washington.
I arrived at Vero on the evening of October 25 and left there on October 31. Having examined with some care the geological situation and having studied somewhat the vertebrate fossils found in the strata designated by Dr. Sellards as No. 2 and No. 3, I reach the following conclusions:
1. Stratum No. 2 was in general laid down during the Pleistocene. —It seems hardly necessary to present arguments to sustain this conclusion, for it is hardly probable that anyone will call it in ques- tion. It is possible that some parts of the stratum were afterward re-worked by the streamlet which flowed over it, but this was accomplished during Pleistocene times.
2. The vertebrate fauna of No. 2 belongs to the Pleistocene, and most of it is there by primary inclusion.—No place was discovered from which the included bones and teeth might have been washed in, nor do they in general have the appearance of transported fossils. These bony remains are in what may be regarded as a normal condition; as when, in a little valley furnishing food and drink and shade, herbivorous and carnivorous species had resorted and perished there for thousands of years. In a normal way their bones have almost all fallen into dust. Some, buried under some- what favorable conditions, endured longer, but softened and were trampled into fragments by succeeding generations of elephants, mastodons, horses, bisons, huge ground sloths, and smaller forms. Only the most favored and protected bones and teeth have endured to the present, mostly scattered, but sometimes remaining asso- ciated with others of the same skeleton.
3. Al least the lower part of No. 3 is also of Pleistocene age.— This deposit is somewhat more difficult to work for fossils, but it
52
FOSSIL HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA 53
has furnished almost all the forms that are found in No. 2. It is not improbable that some bones and teeth were redeposited from the lower stratum, but not, I think, any considerable or essential portion of them.
a) Considering the relatively small amount of erosion which No. 2 suffered from the stream which laid down the muck bed, there are too many fossils in the latter to permit the conclusion that any great number of them came from the older deposit. The lowest layers of muck early formed a blanket which protected the sands of No. 2 from further disturbance.
b) The state of preservation of the fossils of No. 3 does not indicate that they were redeposited from No. 2. They are not more broken and waterworn than those of No. 2.
c) There are some extinct species in No. 3 whose remains must lie where originally buried. The box-tortoise Terrapene innoxia is found in both strata. Although the bones of the cara- pace are usually co-ossified into one mass, this shell is so thin and brittle that it would certainly have fallen into pieces on being rolled along a stream bed. It is even now extremely difficult to unearth a shell without breaking it. Yet one whole carapace and large portions of others have been secured from No. 3. From this muck bed there come seven bones of one individual of an extinct snapping tortoise, probably Chelydra sculpta. The shell of this animal, like that of our living species, is thin and loosely articulated. On maceration the bones separate easily. Had the seven bones referred to been buried originally in No. 2, they would, on being washed out, have been scattered like autumn leaves.
d) In No. 3 there is a deer of the genus Odocoileus which is smaller than the one found in No. 2.7. From No. 3 Dr. Sellards has sent me a. fifth cervical vertebra which shows that this deer is very distinct from the existing Virginia deer and still farther removed from the mule deer. The fox referred with doubt by Dr. Sellards to the red fox is certainly an undescribed species, having had a heavier lower jaw than that of the red fox. A femur from No. 3 probably belongs to the same species. It is larger, straighter, and more flattened than that of the red fox.
tSellards, Sth Ann. Rep. Fla. Geol. Surv. p. 1409.
54 OLIVER P. HAY
In short, there are so many well-preserved extinct vertebrates in No. 3 that it must be referred to the Pleistocene; and the study of the collections adds continually to the number.
4. A few words only about the human bones.—I consider now only those found at the locality illustrated by Sellards’ Text-Fig. 6 and his Plate 16 and Plate 17, Fig. 2. Had no human bones been found there the following explanation would, I think, hardly be questioned. No. 2, consisting mostly of sand, had been deposited, leaving traces of horizontal stratification. At a later time the swollen streamlet cut down through it to the underlying marl. About four feet away at the same time it cut down nearly to the marl. The two currents left a ridge of undisturbed sand which contained some bones. As the currents lost their force, sand began to be deposited on the sides and summit of the ridge. Had there been any con- siderable interval, this ridge of sand would have been flattened down and disturbed in various ways. Before the freshet spent itself a mass of vegetation was swept down and deposited, mostly in the channels but partly on the ridge, thus sealing it in until our day. As to the human bones found lying on the slope of No. 2, a reasonable explanation is that they had previously been scattered and inclosed in its sands and then laid bare by the freshet. Their condition of fossilization is the same as that of the animal bones found near by, and their broken condition indicates that they had suffered from the trampling of animals, as those other bones had.
5. The age of stratum No. 2 and of at least the lower pari of No. 3 is not later than middle Pleistocene-—The fauna afforded by the deposits In question is essentially that which is found in the Aftonian interglacial beds in Iowa and in the Equus beds of the Plains. From the latter it may be followed into Texas, thence eastward into Florida and South Carolina. Of this fauna two species of ele- phants, the common mastodon, Megalonyx, and the giant beaver, continued on until after the Wisconsin glacial stage. Other species, the saber-tooth tigers, Equus complicatus, the tapirs, most of the extinct bisons, and Mylodon probably disappeared before the Wis- consin. In the earlier Pleistocene deposits only are found Elephas imperator, camels, several species of horses, and many edentates. At Vero have been found three species of horses, at least four
FOSSIL HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA 55
edentates (including Mylodon), and a camel. Chlamytherium was originally found on Peace Creek in deposits which were then supposed to be Pliocene. In the same deposits was found a jaw containing a tooth of an elephant which is quite likely E. imperator. This species has not yet been found in No. 2 at Vero, but about three miles west of the place Sellards found a lower jaw which be- longs probably to this species. It is known from Dallas County, Alabama, and from Charleston, South Carolina. The writer regards - it and camel remains as particularly indicative of the Aftonian fauna.
It is possible that this fauna continued on for another stage or two without great change, but by the time of the Illinoian drift it had become essentially modified.
6. The human bones appear to be of Pleistocene age.—At present I perceive no other reason for doubting this than that their presence in No. 2 and No. 3 contravenes our present ideas regarding the history of the human race.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCES OF MAN’S ANTIQUITY AT VERO, FLORIDA
GEORGE GRANT MacCURDY Yale University
The apparent association of human remains and artifacts with fossil animal remains in Pleistocene deposits is always and every- where sufficient to challenge the attention of scientists. This is especially true of the New World, where Pleistocene man has not yet won a place in the prehistoric hall of fame; hence the wide interest taken in the announcement by Dr. E. H. Sellards," state geologist of Florida, that he and his colleagues had found such an association at Vero, Florida.
As one of several invited to investigate the circumstances of the find on the spot, the writer obtained leave of absence from Yale University for this purpose, and visited the Vero site during the week of October 23~29 as the guest of Dr. Sellards. To him and to his assistant, Mr. H. Gunter, as well as to his local associates, Messrs. Frank Ayers and Isaac M. Weills, grateful acknowledg- ments are due for facilities so generously extended. ‘The writer’s visit approximately coincided with those of Dr. Rollin T. Chamber- lin of Chicago and Drs. O. P. Hay, A. Hrdlicka, and T. Wayland Vaughan of Washington, D.C. The headquarters of the party were at the site itself, one-half mile north of the village of Vero, and easily reached by the highway that parallels the railroad tracks.
The drainage canal which cuts through the site is of itself sufficient proof of the flatness of the country. The human remains and artifacts and the fossil animal remains were all found at. the junction of two lateral valleys, which united to form the trunk of a wider valley; in this valley until recently a stream followed an “7]|-defined, anastomosing, and frequently changing channel.” At
t Amer. Jour. Sci., XLII (July, 1916); Eighth Ann. Rep. Fla. State Geol. Survey, pp. 121-60, 1916; Science, N.S., XLIV (October 27, 1916).
56
FOSSIL HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA 57
this junction the canal enters from the west the main-stream valley, which it follows for some 800 feet.
Along both banks of the canal Dr. Sellards had prepared sections for the inspection of the party. One of these sections was extended by Dr. Hrdlicka, who also opened up a new section along the east bank of the tributary canal that follows the course of the lateral valley entering from the south. Additional animal remains were found daily during the stay of the party, especially in the middle one of the three strata described by Dr. Sellards. As to the cor- rectness of his interpretation of the stratigraphic section there would seem to be little doubt. It remains to be seen whether all his conclusions can stand the test with equal success.
Dr. Sellards had brought with him from Tallahassee human remains found to date in stratum No. 2 and along the contact line between it and stratum No. 3, also certain flint chips, bone imple- ments, the tip of a proboscidian tusk, and a fragment of a bird bone —the last two with markings which he believed to have been made by tools. These were all carefully studied by the writer while he was at Vero. Later the human bones were sent to Dr. Hrdlicka at the National Museum and will be the subject of his contribution. From a study of them at Vero before the broken parts were assembled, and without material at hand for comparison, the writer agrees with Dr. Hrdlicka that they are in no way different from Indian skeletal remains found in the sand mounds of Florida. In the writer’s opinion the markings on the tip of the proboscidian tusk and on the fragment of bird bone, both from stratum No. 2, are not the work of man.
A consignment including flint chips and implements, bone - implements, and an ornament and potsherds were sent to New Haven after the writer’s return. The sherds and some of the other objects are from stratum No. 3. Some of these specimens were figured by Dr. Sellards; certain of the figures which seemed to be inadequate in Sellards’ work are reproduced herewith.
The flint spall, No. 6964 (Sellards’ Text-Fig. rr), was found in stratum No. 2, in the south bank, 460 feet west of the railroad bridge and 3 feet from certain bones of human skeleton No. II (Fig. .z). Another and smaller spall of identical material, which might well
58 GEORGE GRANT MacCURDY
have been chipped from the same parent block, was, according to Sellards, found in the south bank 460 feet west of the bridge, but in stratum No. 3 (Fig. 2). That of these two chips of like material and so near each other in respect to horizontal displacement one should have been found in stratum No. 3 and the other in stratum No. 2 is significant. The question arises whether both might not have been originally in stratum No. 3, one having worked its way down into No. 2 by the aid of growing roots or burrowing animals. While Dr. Sellards does not recall having seen any roots reaching into stratum No. 2 where the spall reproduced in Fig. 1 was found, he admits that roots do penetrate this stratum in places, notably a
Fic. 1 Fic. 2 Fic. 3
Fics. 1-3.—(1) Flint spall from stratum No. 2, south bank, 460 feet west of the bridge and near human bones; (2) flint spall of identical material from stratum No. 3, south bank, 460 feet west of the bridge, from siftings; (3) flint spall from stratum No. 2, south bank, 460 feet west of the bridge, from siftings (+). Nos. 6964, 7072, and 7049.
little farther west where flint No. 7055 (not herein figured) was found.
These spalls were never retouched or utilized. Each has what the French call a plan de frappe (“plane of percussion”) and a well-marked bulb of percussion. ‘The inner or conchoidal surface is fresh and the edges are unworn. ‘They were evidently chipped from the parent block not far from where they were found. At one time the presence of a bulb of percussion was looked upon as a sure sign of human agency. Certain rare examples from the base of the Eocene at Belle-Assise, Clermont (Oise), and from the Oligocene at Boncelles, Belgium, are proof that the bulb is not an infallible sign. By accidentally letting one flint fall upon another, the writer has on one occasion unintentionally caused the production of a bulb of percussion. It is, however, quite logical to assume that the vast
FOSSIL HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA 59
majority of chips with bulbs that occur in Pleistocene and later deposits have been produced intentionally, especially when asso- ciated with human skeletal remains or with undoubted artifacts. This is doubly true at Vero, because the source of the flint is the Ocala or the Tampa formation a hundred miles to the northwest of Vero. The cores from which the chips were struck could not well have been transported that distance over so flat a country except through human agency.
The small flint chip reproduced in Fig. 3, and thought by Sellards (his Text-Figs. 7 and 8) to be an implement, is likewise only a chip or spall with its plane of percussion and bulb of percussion. The multiple facets on its back or outer surface are due to the fact that it was an inner instead of a superficial chip. It also is from the south bank 460 feet west of the bridge, hence from near skeleton No. II and the other two spalls here reproduced. While obtained from siftings, it is believed by Dr. Sellards to have come from stratum No. 2. In a recent letter he emphasizes the fact that “up to the present the number of spalls taken from stratum No. 2 is in excess of the number taken from stratum No. 3, notwithstand- ing that rather more material from No. 3 has been handled, nd fully as much material from that stratum has been passed through the sieve as from stratum No. 2.” This fact, however, would not seem to have any very direct bearing on the question whether or not flints from stratum No. 3 had worked their way down into stratum No. 2.
A typical arrowhead of flint with barbs and stem, the latter however broken off, came from the contact line between strata No. 2 and No. 3 in the south bank 470 feet west of the bridge (Sellards’ Fig. 1, Pl. 21).
For the sake of comparison bone implements from strata No. 2: and No. 3 are reproduced in Figs. 4-6. Fig. 4 is a typical point from stratum No. 3, south bank, one of several from 450 to 470 feet west of the bridge. The fragment of a similar point, obtained in siftings from stratum No. 2, south bank, 462 feet west of the bridge, is shown in Fig. 5. Another and nearly complete point, obtained in siftings from stratum No. 2, south bank, 480 feet west of the bridge, differs from the other two only in size (Fig. 6).
60 GEORGE GRANT MacCURDY
So far as the writer is aware no potsherds have as yet been reported from stratum No. 2, although they occur somewhat plenti- fully in stratum No. 3. Of the dozen sherds sent to New Haven every one is more or less waterworn. When subjected to stream action, these sherds would show the effects of wear quicker than would the bones, flints, and bone implements. The pottery is of fairly uniform quality, the paste being neither crude nor fine. Itis black to brown in color and the walls are of medium thickness. Judging from these twelve sherds, the ware was unpainted and un- decorated. Of the three rim fragments, two are from bowls of
Fic. 4
Fic. 6
Fics. 4-6.—(4) Bone point from stratum No. 3, south bank, 450-70 feet west of bridge; (5) fragment of bone point from siftings of stratum No. 2, south bank, 462 feet west of the bridge; (6) bone point from siftings of stratum No. 2, south bank, 480 feet west of the bridge (}). Nos. 6912, 6963, 6981.
medium size, the third, somewhat thicker, is from a medium-sized bowl with slightly incurved rim. All these rims are plain but carefully finished. The smoke stains and accumulated soot indi- cate that these were culinary vessels. It should be recalled that the sherds, flints, and bone implements of stratum No. 3 are found in the north as well as the south bank of the canal at the junction of the two lateral valleys previously mentioned. None of these differ from similar antiquities found on the surface or in Florida mounds.
To summarize the archaeological evidences of man’s antiquity at Vero, one can say that the pottery, bone implements, including fishhooks, bone heads, and flint arrowheads from stratum No. 3 and from the surface of contact between it and the stratum below,
FOSSIL HUMAN REMAINS AT VERO, FLORIDA 61
all point to a period that might well have continued down to the close of the prehistoric period in Florida. This is also true of the human skeletal remains from the third stratum. On the other hand, of the 25 mammalian species from the second stratum as listed by Dr. Sellards, ten, including Elephas columbi, Mammut americanum, Equus leidyi?, and Tapirus haysit?, recur in stratum No. 3. Assuming that the stratigraphy is not misleading, the conclusion is either that this particular phase of the Neolithic period in America dates back farther than many had supposed, or else that certain fossil mammals continued to live on in Florida until a comparatively recent date.
The chief interest centers in the second stratum. From it no undoubted stone implements have thus far been reported. Al- though probably produced through human agency, the flint spalls from this deposit do not differ from those in the deposit above, in one case there being absolute identity of material. While a greater number of bone objects have been found in the third deposit than in the second, bone points of the same type occur in both; neither do these seem to differ as to their chemical state. Potsherds, fairly frequent in stratum No. 3, have not yet been reported from the stratum below. Of the human skeletal remains there does not seem to be any appreciable differentiation between those from the second and those from the third stratum.
There are to be noted then the absence of well-defined stone artifacts and of pottery from the second deposit; the presence of both in the third; the similarity of the flint chips from the two deposits; the similarity of the bone points in both deposits; and the greater number and variety of bone artifacts including ornaments in the third deposit. But for the similarity of the flint chips and the bone points the cultural evidence is very much as one might have been led to expect, assuming of course that the stratigraphy is unmixed and that all specimens have been found zm sztu. On the other hand, in the absence of stratigraphy as a guide, of all the human and cultural remains reported from stratum No. 2 none would seem out of place in stratum No. 3.
It will be recalled that one flint spall (see Fig. 3) referred to the second stratum was from siftings; and that the two bone points
62 GEORGE GRANT MacCURDY
(see Figs. 5 and 6) referred to the same stratum are likewise from siftings. Even if these were eliminated, there would still remain as stratigraphically troublesome elements the two flint chips (see Figs. 1 and 2). The presence of plant stems, acorn cups, and pieces of wood in the second stratum, although by no means so abundant as in the third stratum, nevertheless give to it an aspect of com- parative newness. Some of the leaves in the muck at the base of the third stratum look as if they might have been buried only a few years ago.
From observations made on the spot and from a study of speci- mens submitted, the writer is of the opinion that for the most part the human skeletal remains, flint chips, and artifacts probably found their way to this meeting-place of waters through the same agencies as did the various animal and plant remains, and that there has been more or less dovetailing of the two deposits, because of the peculiar location of the site at the junction of two streams coming from oppo- site directions. If these premises be true, it would be hazardous to attribute any great antiquity to even the oldest human and cultural remains from Vero. It would be more logical to assume that some of the extinct forms found in the second stratum are perhaps derived from an older deposit; that others lived on in that southern clime longer than has hitherto been supposed, and that the presence of the Indian hunter had much to do with the final ringing down of the curtain on the drama of their ultimate extinction.
SUGGESTIONS FOR A QUANTITATIVE MINERALOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
ALBERT JOHANNSEN University of Chicago
It is with considerable hesitation that the writer introduces a new classification of igneous rocks. He knows that he who adds a single term to an already overburdened vocabulary is looked upon with disfavor, while he who brings in many has hearty objurgations heaped upon him; yet he hopes, as others who have gone this way before him have hoped, by fixing definite boundary lines beyond which the different families cannot pass, to eliminate the multiplica- tion of names for rocks which differ in no essential particulars from previously described types.
It is being recognized, more and more, that there is need for three classifications of igneous rocks. Of these, one must be for field use’ and megascopic. Another must be chemical, after the manner of the systems of Osann? and C.I.P.W.3 The third must be mineralogical. The old classifications of Rosenbusch and Zirkel are more or less mineralogical, it is true, and are not to be discarded lightly, but they fail especially in their lack of the quantitative element. Furthermore, they are neither purely mineralogical, purely chemical, nor purely geological. For example, certain dike-rocks are classified by Rosenbusch, on the basis of their field associations with nephelite-syenites, essexites, etc., as rocks of the alkali series, and to them he gives specific names, yet they are miner- alogically and chemically identical with normal rocks of the alkali- lime series. He depends in part, therefore, on field associations
«Field classifications are given by Cross, Iddings, Pirsson, and Washington, Quantitative Classification of Igneous Rocks (Chicago, 1903), p. 180; L. V. Pirsson, Rocks and Rock Minerals (New York, 1908), p. 202; Albert Johannsen, “ Petrographic
Terms for Field Use,” Jour. Geol., XIX (1911), 317-22. A revised form of the latter will appear shortly.
2A, Osann, Tschermak’s Mitteilungen, XIX, XX, XXI, XXII (1899-1903). 3 Cross, Iddings, Pirsson, and Washington, of. cit. 63
64 ALBERT JOHANNSEN
for classification. Elsewhere he uses chemical data to classify rocks which he defines in mineralogical terms; for example, the SiO, percentage must lie between certain limits, or the sum of the alkalies must be less than the alumina, etc. Another objection to the present system of classification is the fact that rock terms have been used loosely or with different @ meanings. ‘Thus dolerite, originally applied to a coarse basalt, has been used for any dark rock, and in England is used for rocks which we call diabases. The term diabase in the United States means a dike-rock with an ophitic texture, yet it was origi- nally used for Paleozoic basalts and is still so used 1 various countries: Fic. 1—One hundred and nine so-called Basalt has been applied
‘““sranites.” Open circles are rocks of Class 1, to plagioclase rocks with and dark circles rocks of Class 2. The double augite and olivine irr espec- circle is the mean of Daly’s granites re- : ;
computed into the probable modal minerals. tive of the kind of feldspar )
to labradorite-pyribole™
{) \ LX/\
[XS IAAI W NAVAVaNN ake /N\IiN/\¥,
rocks with or without olivine, to the darker labradorite-pyribole rocks, to post-Tertiary extrusives of gabbroic magma, etc.
The loose usage of terms by different writers with respect to the mineralogical compositions of rocks is well brought out by Figs. 1 and 2, in which the three corners of the triangles represent respectively quartz, potash-feldspar, and plagioclase. In Fig. 1 are plotted tog so-called “granites,” taken, not from old descrip- tions, but from comparatively recent ones in which the actual mineral compositions were determined by the Rosiwal method or by careful estimation by the various writers themselves. In a few cases the rocks were doubtless named on the basis of their
t A general term for the members of the pyroxene and amphibole groups (Albert Johannsen, of. cit.).
MINERALOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS 65
chemical compositions, but in most cases their chemical composi- tions are as far from true granites as are their mineral compositions. The figure shows that there are actually 6 potash-granites (one of them quartz-rich), 63 normal granites (4 of them quartz-rich), 29 quartz-monzonites (1 of them quartz-rich), and 11 granodiorites. Fig. 2 represents 30 so-called ‘‘syenites.’”’ There are 2 potash- syenites, 3 normal sye- nites, 14 normal granites, 3 monzonites, 7 quartz- monzonites, and 1 grano- diorite.
Many recent papers show the tendency toward a quantitative mineralogi- cal classification. Thus Brogger proposed fairly definite boun- daries for monzonite and quartz-mMonzo- ré nite. From the latter Fic. 2.—Thirty so-called ‘“‘syenites”’ Lindgren separated _ granodiorite, and established limits so clearly that almost all rocks described as granodiorites are actually such. But covering a wider field are later papers by Iddings' and Lincoln.? Each of these writers proposed a definite classification, and more recently Shand’ sug- gested subdividing rocks according to their percentages of light and dark constituents. To the writer, none of these classifica- tions appears so satisfactory as that which he has presented to his students, with various modifications, during the past seven years. The system was first thought out in the summer of 19009, and even so long ago as the summer of to1o the writer pre- pared plaster models of tetrahedrons, cut into subdivisions essen- tially as shown here. Owing to press of other work and lack of
t Joseph P. Iddings, Igneous Rocks (New York, 1913), Vol. II.
?Francis Church Lincoln, ‘‘The Quantitative Mineralogical Classification of Gradational Rocks,” Econ. Geol., VIII (1913), 551-64.
3. J. Shand, “‘A Recording Micrometer for Geometrical Rock Analysis,” Jour. Geol., XXIV (1916), 404.
66 ALBERT JOHANNSEN
sufficient data in the literature as to the modes of rocks, the publica- tion was delayed. In the present paper the writer presents the system in a tentative form, hoping to receive from other petrog- raphers expressions of opinion and suggestions for modifications. Later he hopes to show the relationships, both mineralogical and chemical, existing between the rocks falling into the various groups.
The system here proposed is strictly mineralogical, quantitative, and modal, and is directly applicable to all plutonites and to prac- tically all extrusives. The writer’s objections to the percentage values set by various other authors will be given below. Appar- ently the dividing lines have previously been arbitrarily selected, and no attempts have been made to gather published data with respect to the modes of rocks. ‘There is, in fact, a surprising lack of such data, the writer having been able to find published reports of less than 600 quantitatively determined rocks.
If the reader has ever attempted to find, from the average report, the relationship existing between a newly described rock and the older types, he will in many cases have found it impossible. This is clearly shown by the fact that Rosenbusch himself, by the misinterpretation of descriptions, has misplaced rocks, grouping them with totally unrelated types. If the reader will turn at random to almost any petrographic report,’ and will read a descrip- tion and then attempt to picture to himself the rock described, in most cases he will find that owing to lack of quantitative data no idea as to its appearance can be obtained.
A name should convey an idea as to the character and appear- ance of a rock, and it should not be necessary, as it now unfortu- nately is, for one to read the description of a rock to know what a writer means. So far as the name itself is concerned, it is of slight importance, provided the texture is described and accurate quantita- tive details of the average rock are given. But without quantitative details serious errors may arise. Thus in a recent petrographic report a rock was said to contain orthoclase, andesine, quartz,
«The writer is guilty of having written, indefinite descriptions himself. As an exception to the general rule of poorly written and indefinite reports, he likes to refer his students to Dr. H. S. Washington’s ‘““Roman Comagmatic Region,’ Carnegie
Publication No. 57. Here there is never the least doubt as to the mineralogical composition and appearance of a rock.
MINERALOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS 67
biotite, and hornblende, and was called a syenite. One naturally would suppose from the name that andesine and quartz were of subordinate importance, yet an examination of many thin sections showed 20 per cent quartz and 30 per cent each of orthoclase and andesine, a rock which is a quartz-monzonite BROGGER. One rock found to be thus incorrectly named raises doubts as to the accuracy of the determinations of all other rocks in the same report.
Wg 3
Fig. 4 Fig,5
Fics. 3-8.—Various proportions of dark minerals in a rock
During the past few years the writer has required his students, in their rock descriptions, to give the percentages of the different constituents,* and he has invariably found that the estimates of the less abundant minerals, such as the dark constituents in leuco- cratic rocks or the light constituents in those that are melanocratic, are entirely too high, and that the‘first summation of all the con- stituents runs between 80 and g5 per cent. The reader may test for himself, before reading farther, his ability to estimate per- centages by examining Figs. 3 to 8, which were made by pasting
‘For a specimen card showing percentages see Albert Johannsen, A Manual of Petrographic Methods (New York, 1914), p. 614.
68 ALBERT JOHANNSEN
into circles of known size irregular fragments cut from pieces of black paper which bore definite ratios to the circles. Of course, if one has often measured constituents by the Rosiwal method his estimates are likely to be fairly good.
The system here presented is not intended as a substitute for any chemical system. But, as so well expressed by Clarke, ‘‘ Even if it [the C.I.P.W. system] should be finally adopted by all petrologists, some form of classification like that now in vogue would have to be retained with it. Good analyses cannot be obtained for every rock which the geologist is called upon to determine, and in many cases he must be content with the results of a microscopic examina- tion.”? And it-is also true that for rocks which show considerable decomposition the microscopic method is far more likely to give good results than the chemical.
As an objection to a quantitative mineralogical system, such as is here proposed, it will be said that it is not always possible to determine the exact composition of rocks with a glassy base or extrusive rocks of the alkali series. But the percentage of inde- terminable rocks is comparatively small, and for these there still remain, if necessary, chemical methods for determining the compo- sition of the base. Most glassy rocks are leucocratic, and a recalcu- lation into the minerals which would have crystallized had the conditions been right is easy. Since the majority of these glassy rocks are rhyolitic, one is no worse off in adopting a quantitative classification than at the present time, when they are called rhyo- lites from microscopic examination. In such cases it would not be objectionable to make use of tentative names which could be re- vised after chemical analyses have been made. Ina later paper the author hopes to present a method for determining quantitatively even these rocks with very little difficulty. Certainly 95 per cent of fresh igneous rocks can be classified microscopically. When rocks are completely decomposed, no determinative system, chemical or mineralogical, will help.
The plutonic rocks must necessarily form the type families of any mineralogical classification of igneous rocks, and extrusive
* The actual percentages in the figures are 3, I, 2, 5, 10, and 50. 2¥. W. Clarke, ‘Data of Geochemistry,” U. S. Geol. Surv., Bull. 616, (Wash- ington, 1916), Pp. 432.
MINERALOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS 69
and hypabyssal rocks must be regarded as modifications of these. In this paper the writer has given names only to the plutonic representatives of the few families considered, it being understood, of course, that the granite family includes rhyolites; the syenite family, trachyte; the monzonite, latite; etc.
The basis ofethe classification here proposed is a double tetra- hedron (Fig. 9), each trihedral angle of which represents certain mineral constituents. If there were a geometrical figure hav- ing ten or twelve corners, each equally distant from each of the others, it would have been pos- sible to use a single mineral at acorner. Since there is no such figure, and rocks must be lo- cated with reference to all of the minerals which occur in them, it was found necessary to divide the minerals into as many groups as there are cor- ners in a tetrahedron. But quartz and the feldspathoids never occur together, so it was possible to make the classification in five dimensions by using two tetrahe- drons with a common base (Fig. 9). This arrangement was found to answer the purpose admirably, for the relationships between rocks which may contain either quartz or nephelite, etc., and which appear anomalous in the old classifications, are clearly shown.
The groups of minerals represented by the corners of the double tetrahedron are: (1) quartz (symbol Qu’); (2) potash feldspars (symbol Kf), including the orthoclase molecule in anorthoclase;
Fic. g.—Subdivisions of the double tetrahedron into classes.
tIn the figures in this paper the quartz corner is indicated by the symbol Qu. The letter ‘“f” is used for feldspar, therefore Kf indicates the potash-feldspars— orthoclase, microcline, and the orthoclase molecule in anorthoclase; Naf indicates albite and the soda molecule in anorthoclase, while CaNaf represents the acid plagio- clases and NaCaf the basic plagioclases, the element in excess being given in italics temporarily to avoid confusion, although there need be none if one thinks of the symbol as reading calcium-bearing soda feldspar for the acid plagioclase and soda-bearing calcium plagioclase for the basic. Caf is used for anorthite, and Foids for the feld- spathoids, lenads being unavailable from its use for certain normative minerals of the C.I.P.W. system.
70 ALBERT JOHANNSEN
(3) all plagioclases and the albite molecule in anorthoclase; (4) all feldspathoids; (5) the mafites,! including the ferromagnesian con- stituents, the ‘‘ores,”’ etc., as given below.
As shown in Fig. 9, the double tetrahedron is unsymmetrically divided on certain faces by the traces of planes parallel to the quarfeloid? faces; on others, by lines parallel to one side as well as by lines converging to one of the angles. Experiments were made with symmetrical divisions of various kinds, but it was found impossible to fit the rocks as now named into compartments so made. It is true that new names might have been devised for such subdivisions, but it was not thought desirable to discard entirely the old and well-tried classifications which have very much to recom- mend them besides the fact that they have been so longinuse. The old classifications are unsymmetrical, for we speak of a rock as a quartz-syenite, quartz-monzonite, quartz-diorite, etc., when it contains any amount of quartz. With respect to this mineral, there- fore, the classification is based upon its ratio to the sum of all the. other constituents, and the lines of division must be parallel to a side of the tetrahedron. The same is true also of the feldspathoids. In the divisions according to the feldspars, however, we find, for example, that a rock is a quartz-monzonite whether the percentage of feldspar among the light constituents is to or go. Here the divisions are based upon the ratio of the feldspars to each other, irrespective of what their amount may bein the rock. The division lines, therefore, must converge toward the quartz and feldspathoid corners, as shown in Fig. 9.
t When the writer proposed (Jour. Geol., XTX [1911], 319) the term ‘‘femag” asa substitute for ferromagnesian minerals which are not minerals of the norm, he did not stop to consider its euphony or whether it fitted into the C.I.P.W. terminology, but thought of it only as a term to take the place of ‘‘femic,’’ which was being misused. He is perfectly willing to substitute “‘mafic” as an adjective, as proposed by the authors of the C.I.P.W. system (Jour. Geol., XX [1912], 561). He wishes to use here a term for all the dark minerals of a rock except those that are pneumatolytic, and therefore uses
‘“‘mafite’’ as a noun, feeling at liberty to include in it, since the word has not been used before, certain iron minerals, as listed below.
2 C.1.P.W. suggest “‘felsic’’ as an adjective for the minerals quartz, feldspars, and feldspathoids. The writer here uses ‘‘quarfeloids’” (QUARtz, FELdspar, feld- spathOIDS) as a noun for these minerals in the front faces of the double tetrahedron, “felsite””’ being unavailable from its use as a rock name. ‘‘Leucocrates’’ cannot be used, since all light-colored minerals are not included.
MINERALOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS 71
The igneous rocks may be divided into various classes according to the percentage of dark constituents present. Any number of divisions might, of course, be made; Shand" proposed twelve, though more for descriptive purposes than classificatory. It is, however, not desirable in a classification to multiply excessively the number of classes into which the rocks are divided, and they may be gathered into rather large groups. ‘Tentatively four classes have been made: (1) rocks with less than 5 per cent of dark constituents, (2) dark constituents between 5 and 50 per cent, (3) dark constituents between 50 and g5 per cent, and (4) dark constituents more than 95 per cent. Now since these division lines represent planes parallel to the two quarfeloid planes (quartz-feldspars and feldspars- feldspathoids), Fig. 9, they form similar triangles whose sizes repre- sent the amounts of light con- stituents, decreasing with increase Pen ag le ene le ad uk in dark constituents and approach _ ondary double tetrahedron into orders. to the mafite corner. For conven- ience, however, since they are similar they may be represented by triangles of the same size.
Thus far the classification is one of five dimensions. But this is not enough. The kind of plagioclase in the rock must be taken into consideration. To bring this factor into the classification, imagine the lozenge-shaped quarfeloid plane to consist of two sheets of paper fastened together only along the Qu-Kf-Foids edge. If now the loose corners of the two sheets be separated a distance equal to a side of the original triangle, a new double tetrahedron will be developed, the horizontal line along which it was opened representing all plagioclases, the ends being formed by the Ab and the An molecules (Fig. 10). The same thing can be done, of course, with the double triangles representing the other classes, and the classification will now be made up of four double tetrahedrons,
tS. J. Shand, op. cit., p. 404.
72 ALBERT JOHANNSEN
one for each class, the corners being formed by quartz, potash- feldspar, albite, anorthite, and the feldspathoids. But these tetrahedrons may be subdivided into orders. Based on the old classifications, these orders depend upon the proportions of the albite to the anorthite molecule; consequently the divisions must be made by planes all of which cut the quartz—potash-feldspar—feldspathoid edge but separate across the central plane of the double tetrahedron, as shown by the dotted lines in the figure, or by Fig. 11, which is a hori- zontal section through the center. ‘That is, the edge Qu-Kf-Foids remains common to all of the di- visions, the plagioclase corner simply having been changed. Now while the triangles formed by the
intersections of
these planes with Nar the tetrahedron
Kf Fic. 11.—A section through the central plane of Fig. 10 (F ig Q 10) are not all equilateral, the relative position of any rock plotted on an equilateral triangle on the basis of the three components represented by its corners and reduced to 100 will be the same as the same rock plotted with four components within the solid tetrahedron. Consequently the different orders also may be represented simply by a series of double equilateral triangles (Figs. 20-23 or 24-26) whose right-hand corners vary with the kind of feldspar. It would, of course, be possible to make 20 or 100 or more different orders based upon variations of 5 or 1 or some other percentage in the albite content, but this is neither desirable nor necessary. Here the divisions have been made (1) albite (Abyo.An, to Ab,;An;), (2) oligoclase and andesine, (3) labradorite and bytownite, (4) anorthite (Ab;An,; to Ab,Anioo), giving four orders. In other words, the dividing points between albite and anorthite are 100-95-50-5-0 of the albite molecule.
MINERALOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS 73
There are now six dimensions in the classification, and since each pigeonhole will represent not only a plutonic rock but also a hypabyssal and an extrusive, we may say we have a classification in seven dimensions, yet every rock may be shown by a single point on a drawing ina single plane. The more detailed description which follows may make this clearer.
NUMBER AND POSITIONS OF THE VARIOUS DIVISION LINES
Classes.—The dividing lines between the various classes, orders, families, etc., were not selected at random, but an attempt was made to see if they have any logical positions. For this purpose the writer has been collecting data on cards for all rocks whose modes in mineral percentages have been determined. ‘The number is small, less than 600 such rocks having been found. Unfortu- nately this number is too small to determine definitely all points, but the writer found that in most cases preliminary graphs with fewer analyses showed practically the same curves as the ones here given.*
In order to determine the positions of the dividing planes between the light and the dark rocks, and to decide whether there should be four or five classes (namely white, light, medium, dark, and black), the rocks of the various families were plotted in Fig. 12, in which the abscissae represent the proportions of light constitu- ents in the rock and the ordinates the number of rocks whose modes were known, the percentages being gathered by fives to make a smoother and more representative curve than the individual percentages would have made. The lower curve in the figure is the curve of all rocks (585) of which the writer had the modes, and includes the alcalic rocks as well as the families given in the upper curves. All the curves except the one for gabbro, which does not extend so far, show an increase at go-95 per cent light and a decrease beyond that toward 100 per cent. Consequently rocks may well be called leucocratic when there are 95 per cent or more of light minerals; and there is no objection to making the melano- cratic division beyond 95 per cent dark. A difficulty appears in
«Since this paper was written, 91 additional mode-analyses have been found, but the graphs remain practically as they were.
74 ; ALBERT JOHANNSEN ©
making a third division. In the granite and syenite, monzonite and quartz-monzonite, syenodiorite and granodiorite families a line separating 50 per cent light from 50 per cent dark would throw practically all of the rocks on the same side. With respect to diorite and quartz-diorite the curve is not good, owing to insufficient data, and it shows no definite maximum. ‘The gabbro-
curve has its maximum at 60 per cent light. With the gabbros 5 Ga ldgasceeeesedeeece ST SG ae Se Nz i is N is Ee ae athe
N aa | jes
a seta
EERE EMS
ie = ACRE
Z iN zi WA te
CHE HERE
a (a aha Eaan ae 5 | et (SSeEeees = SEEN [istore [a [esas DZ 50
Fea oe ae taf)
ia sa |e 2
dark 0 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 8 Percentage of light minerals
fo) ve} °o =) fo} oO xf be g ct
Fic. 12.—Curves showing the number of rocks with various percentages of light and dark constituents: A, granite and syenite; B, quartz-monzonite and monzo- nite; C, granodiorite and syenodiorite; D, quartz-diorite and diorite; EL, quartz-gabbro and gabbro; F, all rocks.
and diorites it might be better to make five classes with dividing lines at o—-5—35—-65—95-100 instead of at o-5—50-95—I00, yet the 65 per cent light line cuts the gabbro-curve at rather a high point. The addition of a fifth class for rocks with approximately equal amounts of light and dark constituents would increase the total number of families by 104, and to the writer it seems undesirable to do this. Not much is gained, and it is just as well to speak of light and dark gabbros, separating on the 50-50 line, as to make the main gabbro class the intermediate 35-65 position. In the lowest curve, which
MINERALOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS 75
represents all rocks, there are no sharp division lines except at 5 and 95 or thereabout. ‘The central division points could equally well be 50-50 or 35 and 65. On the whole, the writer thinks the 50-50 line best, but leaves this question open for the present.
Lincoln? makes three divisions, leucocratic, mesocratic, and melanocratic, according to the percentages of light constituents, with division lines at o-33-67-100; and in the expanded series, five divisions at 0-4-33-67—96-100.
Iddings? separates his rocks on the ratios o-?—3—100; that is, into rocks with less than 373 per cent dark, between 374 and 624 per cent, and with more than 623 per cent. This makes the first and third groups very large. Even the C.I.P.W. general subdivisions of o-123—-373-625-873-100 would make the first and last groups too large, for rocks with 123 per cent of dark constituents (see Fig. 7 with 10 per cent) certainly are not leucocratic. Further- more, a division at 123 or 373 per cent at the leucocratic end is not so logical as at 5 per cent (cf. Fig. 12). Shand’ makes his divisions at 100-97—-go-80-70-60-50-40-30-20-10-3—0 per cent light minerals. These, however, are too many for the purpose of classification, the essential difference between rocks with 60 and 70 per cent of dark constituents, for example, being insignificant. From the curves in Fig. 12 there appears to be little choice between dividing lines at 33, 35, 373, or 50. If there is any, it is in favor of 50-50.
Orders.—Having divided the rocks into four (or five) classes according to the amount of dark constituent, they may be divided into orders on the basis of the plagioclase.
In determining the kind of plagioclase in a rock, it has been quite customary to give the Ab-An percentage in simple round numbers, such as Ab,An,, Ab,;An,, etc. This produces an excessive number of rocks at these points, as is clearly brought out in Fig. 13, which is less valuable for that reason. As may be seen, there are crests at Ab, Ab,An,, Ab,An,, Ab;An,, Ab;An,, and AbgAniop. Having no other marked crests in the curve indicating natural division lines, the writer has taken the points o-5—50~-95—I100,
t F.C. Lincoln, of. cit., 556. 2 J. P. Iddings, op. cit., II, 150, 308. 3S. J. Shand, op. cit.
76 ALBERT JOHANNSEN
thus grouping albite (allowing up to Ab,;An; for latitude), oligoclase and andesine, labradorite and bytownite, and anorthite (with Ab;An,; for latitude), and conforming to the present lines of separa- tion between the alkali rocks, the acid plagioclase (dioritic) rocks, the basic plagioclase (gabbroic) rocks, and the anorthite rocks. Each of the first three classes of rocks may be divided in this manner into four orders, making twelve orders in all. The fourth class, that is, the one in which the dark constituents form over 95 per cent of the rock and the light constituents, including the feldspars, only 5 per cent, naturally cannot be divided on the basis of the feldspars; consequently its orders are differently formed. O15 205220 30 40-50 60 _—-70
80 90 95 100
in loo a ° & 10 E 4 AD
Percentage anorthite 4,
Fic. 13.—Number of rocks with various plagioclases, all families from o to 31 included.
Lincoln does not divide his rocks on the kind of plagioclase, but separates his gabbro from diorite, for example, simply on the basis of its leucocratic or mesocratic character, which is not according to common usage.
Iddings' unites his orthoclase with albite and uses the ratio of orthoclase plus albite to other plagioclases, and makes ae divisions? at the points o—7—3—3-1-100; that is, at o-123—-373-623-873-100 percent. ‘These divisions are not quite comparable 6 ae present writer’s triangular divisions into the Kf, Naf, and Caf ratios. Owing to the fact that soda is of more importance in connection with the lime of the plagioclases than it is in connection with the potash of cryptoperthite, it seems more reasonable to separate Kf from Naf+Caf than to separate Kf+Ab from the plagioclase minus albite. The latter would be simpler in placing microperthite, but
tJ. P. Iddings, op. cit., II, 41. 2 Tbid., pp. 38, 40-41, 42, 44.
MINERALOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS 77
is incorrect in theory. Tyrrell* says that Iddings’ system is faulty in this respect, and suggests uniting all the soda molecules with orthoclase, and comparing the sum with the lime molecules. But to this the objection may be made that it fails to separate the soda- from the potash-rocks. Personally the writer prefers to go one step farther and separate the three molecules, as shown in Fig. 11. If Kf and all the Naf were united, it would make difficulty in the monzonite group where the Ab molecule must be separated from the An. Thus with the potash and soda united, a rock with 50 per cent orthoclase and 50 per cent andesine (Abs«An,) would give (Or+Ab)s,An2o, while *f classified by the ratio of orthoclase to albite plus anorthite it would give Or,, Plag;,. The difficulty in determining the albite in most microperthite is not great; the amount can be estimated with little error.2 Of course this is not possible in anorthoclase, and rocks containing much of this mineral will have to be determined chemically. Ordinarily, however, the amount of soda is too small to change the classification of the rock, even if neglected. In rocks which contain known amounts of soda-orthoclase and plagioclase, the molecules must be separated. Thus a ciminite from the Roman Comagmatic Region? contains soda-orthoclase (OrsAb,) 43.6 per cent and labradorite (Ab;An,) 16.1 per cent, which gives orthoclase 37.4 per cent and albite 6.2 per cent from the soda-orthoclase, and albite 5.4 per cent and anorthite 10.7 per cent from the labradorite. Uniting these there is orthoclase 37-4 per cent, albite 11.6 per cent, and anorthite 10.7 per cent. This gives Ab,,An,3, the point falling just on the Ab side of Ab,An, or in Order 2, and Kf,,Plag,,, which brings the rock in the row of families 3, 8, 13, etc. (Fig. 16). Zonal feldspar may be determined by considering the approximate amounts of each kind and obtaining the average Ab-An value. This will be necessary in but few cases, for ordinarily it may be determined by inspection whether the
™G. W. Tyrrell, “A Review of Igneous Rock Classification,” Science Progress, No. 33 (July, 1914), 79.
?¥For figures giving a comparison of measured and calculated values see Eero Makinen, Bull. com. géol. Finlande, No. 35 (1913), p. 74; Charles H. Warren, Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences, LI (1915), 127-54.
3H. S. Washington, op. cit., p. 65.
78 ALBERT JOHANNSEN
average runs across the Ab,,An,, line. Of course if the nucleus as well as the rim falls entirely between the o-5, 5-50, 50-95, or 95-100 lines, there is no need for computation unless it be to determine the exact position of the rock in the triangle.
Families —The quarfeloid face of the double tetrahedron (Fig. 9), or any face parallel to it, will appear as shown in Fig. 16. To locate the lines separating the various families it was necessary to determine the logical divisions in two directions; namely, between
a Se anaes ee ela Wed ia SP a EE cy Ee ee ee eee eee eee 2 ee ee ee Se ee ee RC Os Ne Zann BOeran= = aeraor ee
i Pla ) TOMASO 30 ie “s 90 0 Kf 100 90 80 70 60 20 45 30 10 a)
Percentage plagioclase
Fic. 14.—Ratios of Kf to plagioclase in Families 1 to 15, Orders 1 to 3, and totals. Vertical scale of totals is one-half of other curves. The numbers indicate the orders.
the potash feldspar and the plagioclase and between rocks with or without quartz or feldspathoids.
In Fig. 14 the curves for the proportions of potash-feldspar to plagioclase are shown for Orders 1, 2, and 3 and for the sum of all feldspathoid-free rocks; the writer having no mode-analyses showing potash-feldspar with anorthite in Order 4. The curves show rather excessive increases on the 50-50 line, due to the fact that many writers speak of labradorite as Ab;An,; the deduction of rocks where this was done would slightly reduce the lines. In all the curves the dividing lines may be made at o-5-35-65-95-I00, corresponding to the subdivisions in vogue of alkali-granite, granite, quartz-mionzonite, granodiorite, quartz-diorite, etc.
MINERALOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS ‘79
The vertical direction of Fig. 16 gives the quartz percentage. In Fig. 15 are plotted the curves for the proportion of quartz among the light constituents for all rocks in the upper triangle (Families © to 15, Fig. 16), and separate curves for Orders 1, 2, and 3. The separation at 5 is clear. There may be a question whether the upper division of quartz should be made at 95, go, or even at 65. For symmetry, of course, it should be at 95. With respect to a line at 50, the writer is in doubt. Practically all the rocks fall below 50 per cent quartz (that is, quartz is less than 50 per cent of the
et Op of quartz
100 90 60 50 40 30 20 10 10 ee TU Ca Ee a
eal Le Se Pe Si Ce ee eee =. ee ee Sealab Biol | ee E ee
eS Se
Cea eae
SS as
Fic. 15.—Percentage of quartz among the light constituents, recalculated to roo. Curves for Orders 1, 2, 3, 4, and totals. The numbers indicate the orders.
light constituents, consequently it forms even less than 50 per cent of all the constituents of the rock). It would be possible to group all the rocks given in Families 2 and 7, 3 and 8, 4 and 9, etc. (Fig. 16), together, and call those falling in the upper divisions simply quartz-rich granites, etc. However, since there are so few rocks here, it may make it all the more desirable to divide on the 50-50 line. This would make uniform divisions everywhere _ in the system at o-5—50-g5—100 except for the Kf-Plag ratio. Of course the retention of the line at 50 in this and the lower triangle makes 8 or ro more families in each order of the first three classes, or a total of 102. However, if these families are simply numbered and the rocks called quartz-rich granite, quartz-rich granodiorite, nephelite-rich nephelite-syenite, etc., it will add no new names and make clearer the positions of the rocks. Curves drawn for the
80 ALBERT JOHANNSEN
feldspathoid rocks are similar to those in Fig. 15, but are somewhat more irregular owing to insufficient data. The families are to be numbered as shown in Fig. 16. The
Kf
Foide Fic. 16.—Family numbers in Classes I to 3.
object in beginning with o is to make the positions easier to remem- ber, since they run in groups of five. Furthermore, Family o occurs only in Order 1, as do also Families 1, 6, 11, 16, 21, 26, and 31, for they form the hinge about which the order tetrahedron (Fig. 10) was opened, and are the same inall. This is shown in Figs. 21 to 23, where these families are omitted and repre- sented by dotted lines. Instead of having 12X 32families, there- fore, there are 3 X 32 families (in Ta ws es \ the first orders in each of the 3 [19 740 Pleg first three classes) +9 X 24 fami- lies (in Orders 2, 3, and 4) +3 X15+1 families (in Class 4, to be mentioned later), making 358 families in all. If Order 1 is omitted, as suggested in ques- tion 4, below, the total families will be 286, and if Order 4 is united with Order 3 there will be only 214. Although the maximum number of families is 358, it does not mean that there are 358 names to learn, for the light and dark rocks may be separated by prefixes without making awkward names; thus leuco-granite, melano-granite, etc.
The divisions made by other writers may now be compared with Figs. 14 and 15. Lincoln uses the ratio orthoclase to all plagioclase, the latter not differentiated as is done here. His per- centages are 100-96-67—33-4-0.
It is rather difficult to compare the divisions proposed by Iddings with those proposed by Lincoln or by the present writer, for, as mentioned above, he unites albite with the potash feldspar and
MINERALOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS 81
compares this sum with the remaining plagioclase; that is, he has
the ratio Kf+-Ab in albite Ab in soda-lime feldspar-+-all An °
His divisions are,’ as mentioned under “Orders,” above, 100-873— 623-379-125-0.
Olivine
Pyroxenes Fic. 17
Fic. 17.—Subdivisions of the tetrahedron of Class 4 into orders
Fic. 18.—Subdivisions of Orders 1 and 2, Class 4, into 15 families. Order 3 is subdivided similarly, but the corners represent olivine, biotite and amphiboles, pyroxenes, and the ‘‘ores.” Order 4 has the various “‘ores’”’ for corners.
Amphibole, Olivine Amphibole,
6 / t. 12 /Blotite
Ne is __10 \orthorh.
/ pyroxene
\ ye Monoch./ 8
os pyroxene, \
Malioies Me Amphibole, Biotite
Fic. 19.—Family numbers in Class 4
The quartz- (or feldspathoid-) feldspar relations given by Lincoln are 100-96-67—33-4-0, and by Iddings? 100-623—123—0. Lincoln’s division at 33 does not fit at all well into Fig. 15. Idding’s divisions
tJ. P. Iddings, op. cit., II, 38, 40-41, 42, 44. 2 [bid., pp. 32, 38, 147, 228, 202.
82 ALBERT JOHANNSEN
fit quite as well as the divisions 100-95—50-5-o proposed in the present paper, but the writer feels that a rock with 123 per cent quartz (see Fig. 7 with ro per cent) is too rich in quartz to be called a syenite. The writer would have no objection to making the divisions at 100-95—65~5-o quartz (or feldspathoids), that is, on the basis of the 100-95—56—35—5—o divisions with the omission of the 25 \per cent: line but thinks it better to leave the divisions symmetrical. A rock with over 50 per cent quartz or feldspathoid is certainly distinct enough to deserve a separate place.
Class 4.—Owing to the absence of light
{7 NY: constituents in Class 4 ee eee "it was necessary to
WWAATIAARALY Ss MBO
INT NUS LSASAAVANN LENS
make the subdivisions on a different basis. After numerous at- tempts with different figures and different groupings of minerals, it was found that the compartments shown in Fig. 17 correspond most closely to. the)
present subdivisions of
Fic. 20.—Rocks of Order 1 falling in Classes T to13. the melanocratic rocks Open circles are rocks of Class 1, dark circles rocks of é
Class 2, and triangles rocks of Class 3. The tetrahedron is sub-
Lo Foids
divided into fourorders |
by planes parallel to the left-hand face, each order represent- ing an increasing amount of the ores. The division points for these planes, as in the other classes, are o-5—50-95—100. To accommodate the rocks of the old classification, each order triangle
MINERALOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS 83
was opened out at one corner into a secondary tetrahedron, as shown in Fig.18. ‘The division points between families are at o—-25- 75-100 to make the nomenclature conform to the older systems, and they are numbered, from the top and counterclockwise, from 1 to 15. The four corners, in Orders 1 and 2, represent respectively oli- vine, biotite and amphibole, monoclinic pyroxene, and ortho- rhombic pyroxene. au
In Order 3 the corners are olivine, biotite and amphibole, the pyroxenes, and the Hones) and, other dark constituents. In Order 4, if thought desirable, they may y, AN
NZ, ee a fk foe iN
‘ NENTS “fa = the writer, however,
groups the ores in one \ family, for, considered as rocks, they are un- important and hardly worth while separat- ing. All of the fam- ilies of the whole class, except Family 15, ap- pear on the surface of the tetrahedron, Families 5 and 11. being at the back of Fig. 18, Family 14 underneath, and Family 15 in the center. Fig. 19 shows the tetrahedron opened out; Family 15 alone not appearing.
Coy QWOASHOY
Vv Foids
Fic. 21.—Rocks of Order 2 falling in Classes 1 to 3
ROCKS INCLUDED IN THE VARIOUS FAMILIES
Computed by the rules which follow, nearly 600 rocks are represented in Figs. 20 to 23. In these diagrams the rocks of the
84 ALBERT JOHANNSEN
same order, though of different classes, are shown together, the leucocratic rocks of Class 1 being represented by open circles, the moderately dark rocks of Class 2 by dark circles, and the dark rocks of Class 3 by triangles. The larger circles and triangles indicate that a number of mode-analyses fall together at these points. It will be seen that there are 32 families represented in Fig. 20, while in the other three figures there are only 24 to the order, as_ ex- plained above.
In the following list about 500 com- puted rocks are ar- ranged according to their old names fol- lowed by numbers aw Goes ese SOEATAD Ge indicating their posi-
\. ieee ere eariry psec" tions in the present classification. No FOCKS,) are given having less than three mode-analyses unless of well-defined recent rocks. The first fig- ure in the following numbers represents the class, the second y the order, and _ the
Fic. 22.—Rocks of ae falling in Classes 1 to 3 third (or aur an fourth) the family.
There are no orders in Families, 0, 1, 6, 11, 16, 21, 26, and 31, but since the rocks of these families are plotted in the double triangles of Order 1, their positions may be indicated by the figure 1. ‘The figures in parentheses indicate the number of deter- mined rocks which fell into that family. For example, 2123, 118, 422, 4210 represent respectively Class 2, Order 1, Family 23;
ANYON
MINERALOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS 85
Class 1, Order 1, Family 8; Class 4, Order 2, Family 2; and Class 4, Order 2, Family 10. Numbers in bold-face type in the list indicate proper families among scattered (misnamed) rocks. The rocks may seem rather scattered, but upon careful com- parison it will be seen that they are not so far apart as they appear at first sight, for the lighter and darker rocks of Classes 2 and 3
in the gabbro and diorite families and of Classes 1 and 2 in the granite, syenite, monzonite, etc., fam- ilies have ordinarily not been separated in petrographic reports. Much of the variation, of course, is due to the loose naming of rocks, and an andesine- bearing rock with augite may have been named gabbro, and a mesocratic labradorite- augite rock, diorite, etc. Thus the basalts in the list below—2315(4), 3215(1), 3315(5)—in- clude g rocks belonging to Order 3, Family 15, the normal gabbro- basalt family, 4 of the rocks being mesocratic and 5 melanocratic-
ANIA ERY
Foids Fic. 23.—Rocks of Order 4 falling in Classes 1 to 3
The remaining rock (3215) is a melanocratic andesine-bearing rock which should have been called an andesite.
Andesite 2215(6), 3215(1). Aplite 128(3), 217(1), 223(1). Alaskite 118(2), 117(2), 128(1).
86
ALBERT JOHANNSEN
Basalt 2315(4), 3215(1), 3315(5).
Basalt, Quartz 2310(3).
Bostonite 2114(1), 2112(1), 2214(1).
Camptonite 3215(2), 3214(1).
Comendite 217(1).
Covite 2123(1).
Diabase 2215(1), 2315(9), 3215(1), 3315(4).
Diorite 2214(2), 2215(4), 3215(2).
Diorite, Quartz 2210(6), 238(1), 239(4), 2310(3).
Essexite 2320(1), 2315(1), 2324(2), 3213(1), 3314(2).
Gabbro 2314(1), 2315(14), 3314(2), 3315(5)._
Gabbro, Quartz 3310(3).
Gauteite 2320(1), 2330(1).
Granite, including alkali-granite 117(4), 118(1), 123 (1), 127(3), 128(2), 211(1), 212(4), 217(20), 218(8), 210(1), 227(21), 228(27), 229 (16), 2210(6), 238(1), 2310(1).
Granite-porphyry 212(1), 216(1), 227(2).
Granodiorite 228(2), 229(8).
Grorudite 218(6), 219(2).
Hedrumite 2123(1), 2114(1), 2124(1).
Hornblendite 4212(1), 4112(1).
Heumite 2223(2), 2224(2).
Tjolite 2131(5).
Kersantite 2214(1), 3215(2), 3315(1).
Leucitite 2131(1), 2220(1), 2230(1), 2329(1), 2430(2), 3430(1).
Lindoite 228(5).
Laurdalite 2124(1), 2224(1).
Laurvikite 2118(1), 2123(z).
Leucite-tephrite 2223(5), 2224(4), 2220(3), 2327(1), 2230(2).
Malchite 3210 (3).
Melilite-basalt 2315(3).
Minette 216(2), 2t11(1), 227(1), 2212(z), 2215(1).
Minette, Soda 2114(1), 220(1), 2214(2).
Mariupolite 2125(2).
Missourite 3131(3).
Monmouthite 2131(1).
Monzonite 2213(5), 2313(1), 3213(1), ey
Monzonite, Quartz 128(4), 1290(1), 228(7), 220(4), 2214(1), 238(3), 322(3).
Nephelite-syenite 1224(1), 2122(3), 2123(3), 2124(1), 2126(1), 2129 (1), 2222(3), 2223(1), 2225(1).
Norite 2214(1), 2314(3), 3214(1), 3314(5), 3315(5).
Pantellerite 218(3).
Pegmatite 117(7), 118(2), 127(1), 129(4), 1210(2).
Phonolite 2122(2).
MINERALOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS 87
Rockallite 215(2).
Rougemontite 2415(1).
Rouvillite 2225(1).
Shonkinite 2112(1), 3112(1), 3212(1).
Solvsbergite 2112(2), 2113(4), 2123(2).
Syenite’ 2111(2), 2113(3), 227(11), 228(7), 2209(1), 22¥2(2), 2312 (1), 2313(1), 3212(1), 327(1).
Tawite 2127(1).
Tinguaite 2122(1), 2123(4), 2124(3), 2116(1).
-Trachyte 216(1), 2113(1), 2123(1), 2212(1), 2213(2).
Vulsinite 2213(1), 2222(1), 2223(2).
Yamaskite 3415(3).
CLASS NAMES
In a few cases the old classifications give special names to the dark varieties of feldspathic rocks. ‘Thus shonkinite was definitely defined as a syenite with more than half of the constituents dark, although in the foregoing list one rock (2112) is mesocratic. In most cases, however, there are no special names for the dark feldspathic rocks, nor is it necessary to invent such, for the differ- ent varieties may be distinguished by prefixes. Since the rocks of Class 4 are separated from each other on an entirely different basis from the rocks of the other three classes and have special names they need not be considered here. ‘To the other three classes the names suggested by Brégger—leucocratic, mesocratic, and melano- cratic—may be prefixed. If desired, a rock may be called a leuco- granite, meso-granite, or melano-granite, for example, instead of a leucocratic granite, mesocratic granite, etc. Meso, unfortunately, has been used as a prefix for Mesozoic rocks, but since the age classification of igneous rocks is no longer in use this would cause no confusion. Furthermore, since the normal rock usually falls in Class 2, the meso prefix is seldom necessary, and its name may be used without a prefix.
ORDER NAMES
The different orders may be indicated, when no special names exist for the various rocks, by the prefixes albite- (or soda-), sodic-, calcic-, and anorthite- (or lime-). Thus in the diorite family the rocks of the different orders would be albite- (or soda-) diorite,
a
88
ALBERT JOHANNSEN
ov 3 SF = oO e a = 3 a rn v =e a 3 2 a Potash- = eaamatontbeanes lorite ayer te Alk.-sonz Alk.-syenodior\ Nat Ke g CaNat ee V Folds Fic. 24 Fic. 25 “qu Rr ¢
Lherzolite
Saxonite
Augitite Enstatolite
Diall agite Hypersthenite
Websterite
Orthorh. pyroxene
pyroxene
FIG. 27
Foids
Fic. 26
Fic. 24.—Family names, Class 2, Order 1 Fic. 25.—Family names, Class 2, Order 2 Fic. 26.—Family names, Class 2, Order 3 Fic. 27.—Family names, Class 4, Order 1, Families 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9, and 10
1
MINERALOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS 89
sodic-diorite, calcic-diorite, and anorthite- (or lime-) diorite. As a matter of fact, these rocks in the old classification have special names, namely, soda-syenite, diorite, gabbro, and anorthite-gabbro, and, except the first, which more properly is an albite- (or soda-) diorite, should not be changed. The prefixes persodic, dosodic, etc., of the C.I.P.W. system cannot be used, since they apply to definite proportions of the constituents and not to those used here.
FAMILY NAMES
It is not the intention in this paper to name definitely all the families, those in Figs. 24 to 27 being given simply as examples. Most of the family names have been determined, and will be given in a succeeding paper. The family name should be that of a rock with- out abnormal constituents which occupies nearly the center-point of that family. Thus a garnet-bearing rock should not be chosen as a family representative if a non-garnetiferous rock is known, the garnetiferous rock being indicated by a prefix. The name should also be that of the plutonic rock, if such is known. Furthermore, if only one name is given to the rocks of the same family in the various classes, it should be given to Class 2; Class 1 will then be its leucocratic variety and Class 3 its melanocratic variety. It is not to be understood from this that the writer thinks it undesirable to name particular varieties, for it may be very desirable if they represent distinct types and if their relationships to known rocks are clearly shown; but if a new type differs only by the presence of a single abnormal constituent, that constituent should simply be used as a modifying name.
The reasons for using certain family names, such as adamellite for quartz-monzonite, tonalite for quartz-diorite, etc., will be given in a succeeding paper. Syenodiorite, syenogabbro, and grano- gabbro are introduced as new terms to fill definite positions, the last being the orthoclase-bearing variety of quartz-gabbro and analogous to granodiorite, the first two being the quartz-free varieties of granodiorite and granogabbro.
Sub-families in Orders 1, 2, and 3 are formed on the basis of the predominating dark or auxiliary constituent; thus under granite are the divisions biotite-granite, hornblende-granite, topaz-granite,
go ALBERT JOHANNSEN
tourmaline-granite, etc. This applies whether the modifying constituent is a mafite or an auxiliary.
THE MINERAL GROUPS
It is not sufficient to divide the constituents of the rock into those that are light and those that are dark, but it is necessary to make certain definite groupings. The primary division, of course, is into quarfeloids and mafites. Under the former are included:
QUARFELOIDS
Quartz (Qu).
Potash feldspar (Kf), including orthoclase and microcline, and the ortho- clase molecule in microperthite, anorthoclase, etc.
Plagioclase (Plag), including the albite molecule in anorthoclase as well as all plagioclases.
Feldspathoids (Foids), nephelite, leucite, sodalite, hauynite, noselite, melilite, primary analcite, primary cancrinite, eudialyte, etc.
The rear angle of the double tetrahedron represents the mafites. It is the position of the remainder after the quarfeloids and auxiliary constituents have been deducted.
MAFITES
Dark micas (biotite, phlogopite, etc.). ! Amphiboles.
Pyroxenes (including uralitized pyroxenes).
Olivine.
Iron ores (magnetite, ilmenite, chromite, pyrite, hematite, etc.). Cassiterite.
Garnet.
Primary epidote.
Allanite, zircon, rutile, and other dark minor accessories.
SECONDARY CONSTITUENTS
Secondary constituents are calculated as the originals from which they came. Thus ore replacements of the mafites are com- puted as mafites, kaolin as feldspar, chlorite as a biopyribole, cancrinite and analcite as feldspathoids, serpentine as a mafite, etc.
MINERALOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS QI!
AUXILIARY CONSTITUENTS
Auxiliary constituents are constituents, mostly pneumatolytic or metamorphic, which may be used in the nomenclature as min- eral modifiers in the formation of sub-families. Rocks containing these minerals may have independent names if desired. The auxiliary minerals are seldom of importance.
Topaz Primary scapolite Tourmaline Muscovite Cordierite Lepidolite Corundum Zinnwaldite Fluorite Apatite, etc. Andalusite
It will be observed that most of the auxiliary constituents are light in color; they are, consequently, computed among the leuco- crates. It is true that if this is done, tourmaline-granite will fall among the leucocratic rocks, but since this rock is aplitic and the mineral pneumatolytic, this is not undesirable.
Glass must be computed from an analysis. One can usually surmise its composition from the character of the phenocrysts and the appearance of the rock. When undetermined, the rock must be given a tentative name, such as hyaline-rhyolite, etc.
RULES FOR COMPUTING ROCKS FROM THEIR MODES
1. The sum of the minerals in the mode should be 1oo+o.5. Ii less, recalculate? to roo. The sum of the leucocrates (quarfe- loids plus auxiliary minerals) so obtained determines the class.
Class 1. Leucocrates form less than 95 per cent of the total rock.
Class 2. Leucocrates between 95 and 50 per cent.?
Class 3. Leucocrates between 50 and 5 per cent. Class 4. Leucocrates less than 5 per cent.
2. Determine the orders in Classes 1, 2, and 3 directly from the Ab-An ratio, the division lines being o-5—50-95—-100. In rocks
t All of the necessary computations may be performed in an instant of time by means of a slide-rule.
2 These classes are tentative. If thought desirable (see question 1, below), the rocks will be divided into five classes.
Qg2 ALBERT JOHANNSEN
containing both anorthoclase and soda-lime feldspars, the three molecules Kf, Naf, and Caf are to be separated, and the orders determined by the total Ab-An ratio. (See above, under the heading ‘‘Orders,”’ for an example of ciminite so separated.) In Class 4 the orders are determined by the percentage of “‘ores’’ and other dark minerals in the rock, the division points also being O-5—50—-95—100.
3. Determine the family. In Classes 1, 2, and 3 first recalculate the quarfeloids to 100. The amount of quartz (or feldspathoid) immediately determines the distance from the feldspar line. The separation points are o-5—50-95-100. Now recalculatet the Kf plus plagioclase to 100, and determine the proper point on the Kf- Plag line. (If plotted graphically, the family is directly determined by the position of the intersection of the three lines. If the point falls very close to a division line, it may be necessary to compute its position accurately.) The separation points for Kf- Plag are o—5—35—65—95—100.
In Class 4, Orders 1 and 2, recalculate the olivine, pyroxenes, biotite, and amphiboles to too and find the proper positions graphi- cally, or find the position analytically by taking the ratio of the minerals of one corner to each of the others; thus augite to olivine, augite to hypersthene, and augite to biotite or amphibole. The division points are o-25—75-100. In Class 4, Order 3, the corners represent olivine, amphibole and biotite, all pyroxenes, and the “ores” and other dark constituents. In Class 4, Order 4, the writer groups all the ores in a single family, but classifies the vari- ous hematite, ilmenite, magnetite, etc., ores as subfamilies. If desired they may be further separated. If accessory dark min- erals, not used in the computation, are abundant, they determine subfamilies and may be mentioned in the rock name.
A few points to be observed——Any percentage value falling exactly on a line should be moved in the direction of the center of the triangle. Thus a syenite with 5 per cent quartz is classified with granite, a rock with 95 per cent mafites belongs to Class 3,
t It is immaterial whether the orthoclase-plagioclase ratio is taken from the original values or from those reduced as quarfeloids to 100. The results are naturally the same.
MINERALOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS 93
and one with 95 per cent quarfeloids to Class 2; Ab,;An; belongs to Order 2 and Ab,An,,; to Order 3. If the divisions fall on the 50-50 line of quartz they are moved upward, or, with the Foids downward, toward the apex; that is, they are placed in Families 1 to 5 or 25 to 30. Along the plagioclase line, Ab,,An, is classed with the basic plagioclase, and 50-50 light-dark with the dark. Rocks falling on the line separating the two triangles, namely, on the feldspar line, should be classed on the quartz side, that is, on the normal side.
EXAMPLES Example 1.—A granodiorite having the composition Ouartge wee Aves ev wane al 18.0 = 23.1 Orthoclase enue pew eei as} 18.0 = 23.1 Andesine;(AnzovANss))..-). 2... 42.0 = 53.8 Total quarfeloids;.):..:... 78.0 IBIOLITC ME el eenec ete tausaluisS 12.8 Hornblendee iO .sucasue seat, 9.0 IMA CME LICH eta cata Wena. I STM GAMNT SRI i ean Lente I otallomaatitesw sq sineuss mice cu. 22.0 100.0
Percentage quarfeloids=78. Rock belongs to Class 2.
AbyAnyo falls between 95 and 50. The order, therefore, is 2.
The family may be rapidly determined graphically, Plot 23.1 Qu, 23.1 Or, and 53.8 CaNaf by measuring 23.1 upward from the base of the triangle toward Qu, and 23.1 from the right-hand inclined line toward the lower left corner. The intersection of the two lines will fall in Family 9 and determines the position of the rock. Asa check, the point must also lie 53.8 from the left sloping line toward the lower right corner.
To compute the family analytically: From the presence of 23.1 per cent quartz, the family must lie between numbers 6 and tro, since there is more than 5 per cent and less than 50 per cent quartz.
Or 18 _ 30 CaNat 42 70° between 5 and 35 per cent, the family belongs in No. 9.
The rock number, therefore, is 229, that is, Class 2, Order 2,
Family 9
Further, the ratio and since the orthoclase is
94 ALBERT JOHANNSEN
Example 2.—A syenite having
CECE as ira RS ee nr areee arene 60.0 = 76.0 NewS a itieigas sey etle dR Ts, aye ts 18.0 = 22.8 LOH RU ie Uae scans yet ie 1.0 =- 1.2
Total quarfeloids........ 79.0 100.0 BIO tis eh eye ope rete 18.0 oY Derren eee RN GR arena a 20 NIC COS ihe ital unt tay eave I
Motal mafhitesaosn4 ween. 21.0
I00.0
Percentage quarfeloids to mafites 79, therefore Class 2. Ab,An,=Abg,.;An,,.;, therefore Order 2.
Quartz less than 5 per cent, therefore between Families 11
and 15. Ki 100077 ; . CuvaiT i loa: therefore Family 12. The rock number is
2212; thatis, Class 2, Order 2, Family 12. The values 76, 22.8, and 1.2 are used in the graphical location of the rock.
Example 3.—A nephelite-syenite with
| UA Re tea saree ants TESS, fe 205 = 39.0 Nai sre aie. ayia BRIBE) Ab oA = ‘ ne Oe No eee 2 i ene Total teldspar s 3 33949: 55.0 100.0 Nephi so Aan hohe pee Sodalltvis heute seas eee Sas Total feldspathoids ...... 36.0 Total quarfeloids ....... QI.0 COSA UI ye aires ulege encom Mas 5.0 BIO EA erica clare selec icteetele vans 2} A CCOSUAR TS Faroe i oho ate ean Lely) Motalimafites sme sre: 9.0 100.0
Quarfeloid ratio 91. Class 2. Alga Alig 3 vette Order 2.
36 39-5
= . Between Families 21 and 25. 5 OONS
Foids to feldspars=
MINERALOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS 95
Kn 215) 39.0 (CHIN GED AoW) Cpeste) | Rock number is 2223. The values 39 and 61 are used in
plotting the rock.
Family 23.
Example 4—A l|herzolite with
BANE STE GS suena Ulta Loe 45.0 = 47.4 Eby Perstheneni isn cine se ot, 20.0 = 21.0 Olivas WU ues Soe 2) 30.0 = 31.6 iEfornblend eerie. bene, 31,0111. Miao MeLILCH Rt mia nares Santen. AMO)
100.0
Since there are neither feldspars, feldspathoids, nor quartz, the rock must belong in Class 4.
The ratio of ferromagnesian minerals to ores is 98 : 2, therefore the Order is 1.
The ratio of augite to hypersthene is 45: 20= 69:31, therefore the family lies in the middle row and is either 1, 3, 9, or 15 (Fig. 109). The ratio of augite to olivine is 45:30=60: 40, and the rock again lies in the middle line including Families 2, 3, 10, and 15. The ratio of augite to hornblende is 45:3=95:6, therefore it is in the front series of families including 1, 2, 3, 4, 8,9, 10. Family 3 is the only one common to the three computations, consequently the rock number is 413.
Graphically the rock may be plotted by using the numbers 47.4, on Owand 22.0.
One of the advantages of this system of classification is that each thin section of the rock may be plotted independently; the center point of all the dots representing sections from a single rock- mass will represent the average. This is much more satisfactory than estimating the average from a number of sections which differ considerably in the amounts of the constituents. The various dots representing complementary rocks will fall in straight or branching lines, showing the course of differentiation.
Before publishing his second paper on this system of classi- fication the writer desires the opinions of more petrographers than he has been able to consult personally. He would be very glad,
96 ALBERT JOHANNSEN
therefore, to receive at once answers to the following questions as well as further comments from all who are interested.
QUESTIONS
1. Classes.—Should there be a fifth class for rocks having approximately equal amounts of light and dark constituents? The limits would then be o-5-35—65—95—I100 instead of o-5—50-95-I00, as here proposed. The introduction of an extra class would add 104 families.
2. Orders.—Should Order 4 (Fig. 23), in which there are very few rocks, be combined with Order 3? Order 3 would then contain all rocks with plagioclase from labradorite to anorthite inclusive. This would make the subdivisions from Ab to An at o-5—50~-100, and would reduce the number of families by 72. Of course, if the fourth order is retained the pigeonholes need not be named until rocks occupying them have been found.
3. The line separating the granites, adamellites, etc., from the corresponding quartz-rich varieties is here taken at 50 per cent quartz. Should there be a dividing line here, or should granite, for example, include all rocks having from 5 to 95 per cent of quartz ? As suggested above, the division line might be made at 65, making the lines o—5—65—95—100.
4. In the older classifications albite is united with orthoclase for the alkali rocks. This would throw out Order 1, but in the older systems, with the introduction of lime, the soda molecules are divided into two parts, and orthoclase plus albite is contrasted with the lime-soda plagioclases. This division is not logical, but is it desirable? Ifsucha division were made, Order 1 (Fig. 20) would be dropped and the alkali rocks would form Families 1, 6, 11, 16, 21, and 26 of the triangles now representing Order 2 (Fig. 21), and soda- and potash-rocks would have to be separated in the sub- families. The double triangle would then have orthoclase-+albite -+microperthite+ anorthoclase for the left angle of the base, while the right corner would be CaNaf, NaCaf, or Caf, depending upon the orders. Such a combination would simplify the placing of rocks containing microperthite, which is worth careful consideration, but the grouping is not so correct theoretically. All of the rocks
MINERALOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS 97
of Fig. 20 would then fall into the dotted compartments of Fig. 21. Computed modes, however, would be more difficult to place. As a matter of fact it is usually not difficult to separate the albite in microperthite from the orthoclase. Should this change be made, Family 6, for example, would become the family of the alkali-granites, and would contain potash-granite, alkali-granite, alkali-adamellite, alkali-granodiorite, and soda-tonalite. The latter would then again become soda-granite, the first potash-granite, and the intermediate rocks soda-potash granites. Covite, mariupo- lite, most essexites, etc., would fall in Family: 21 without differentia- tion. Such a combination would reduce the number of families by 72, and if the anorthite were united in Class 3, as suggested above, the total reduction would be 144 families. Personally the writer is inclined to favor separating the feldspars into the Or, Ab, and An molecules.
5. Would it be desirable to indicate, in the name of the rock itself, that the mineral proportions have been determined, and that the rock falls into a certain compartment, for example by a slight change in the spelling, such as granyt, dioryt, etc.? Of course terms like monzonite BRrOGGER, theralite ROSENBUSCH, etc., might be used, but they seem cumbersome. (Granyte, dioryte, etc., cannot be used, since this spelling was suggested and used by Dana to contrast with the -zte endings of minerals.)
A ppendix.—An alternative classification could be based upon four double tetrahedrons, representing four classes, according to the amounts of light and dark constituents, and each subdivided as in Fig. 27. The corners of the tetrahedrons would be quartz, Kf, Naf, Caf, and Foids, and the division points o-25—75—100. There would be fewer varieties than in the preceding classification, and it would be much simpler, but the families would not corre- spond so closely to those in the old classifications as does the one given above.
REVIEWS
Geology of the Hanagita-Bremner Region of Alaska. By F. H. Morrir. U.S. Geol. Survey, Bull. No. 576. Pp. 55, figs. 6, pls. 6, maps 2.
The area described in this report is in the southern part of the Copper River drainage basin. Chitina River bounds it on the north, and it extends southward half-way to the coast.
Field work in this region was of a reconnaissance character, but the larger stratigraphic units have been outlined. The oldest sediments are mainly schists, slates, and limestones, and have been referred to the Carboniferous. These beds have been deformed by close folding and faulting and cut locally by intrusions. Unconformable above them is a series of interstratified beds of slate and graywacke thought to be equivalent to the Valdez series, and early Mesozoic in age. This series is in turn unconformable beneath conglomerates and tuffaceous slates of Middle Jurassic age.
The district presents a number of problems in physiography. The drainage has a rectilinear arrangement which must bear some close rela- tion to geologic structure. All the valleys have been profoundly glaci- ated. Many streams are now eroding valley trains. A number of situations appear very favorable for stream capture.
The author is inclined to doubt the theory that Copper River is an antecedent stream across the Chucagh Mountains. He suggests that ice erosion over a narrow divide enabled a southward-flowing stream to tap the Copper River and divert it from a westward course. To com- plete this theory it seems necessary to assume uplift along the western part of the basin to check the flow in that direction, and that along a great part of its course the Copper River has been reversed since the retreat of the ice. W. Bowe
The Shinumo Quadrangle. By L. F. Nosie. U.S. Geol. Survey, Bull Nows46o.7 (Pp stco gig nr splices.
The remarkable geologic section exposed in the Shinumo quadrangle rivals those that have been described previously in the Grand Canyon. - The generally unaltered condition of the beds, the great vertical extent
98
REVIEWS 99
of the exposures, and the absence of a vegetal mask reveal the geologic history in great detail. The rocks in the quadrangle range from Archean to late Paleozoic in age. The pre-Cambrian portion of the section follows: Proterozoic Grand Canon series (Unkar group) Great unconformity
Dox 'sandstoneree swe ata cen ke oa 2,297 feet.
Shimumoquartzite™. .)33s 10s. see TS OAGIE vs
takcataishale aces ne ecole oes Sins SO. e:
Basswlimestone nie. mc naies st cas ict aa Baca
HO tautay COMO sities hese (ets sie neue OO;O! a Archeozoic
Great unconformity Vishnu schist
The Proterozoic sediments were deposited on a surface that repre- sented almost perfect peneplanation. At the close of the period of deposition, uplift and great normal faulting inset these beds deeply into the Archean. This led to their preservation during the next period of great erosion, which again resulted in peneplanation by the close of the pre-Cambrian. Where not protected by faulting the Proterozoic beds were removed. The remnants are in great wedge-shaped masses, each bounded by a fault plane, and the two great erosion surfaces. In no other known region do two profound peneplains meet in a line.
Cambrian and Carboniferous sediments exist throughout the quad- rangle. A disconformity represents the intervening systems. Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks ranging up to 6,000 feet in thickness formerly covered this-area. In early Quaternary times a cycle of erosion, known as the “reat denudation,” drove their outcrops many miles to the north.
The writer follows Davis and others in recognizing but two cycles of erosion in the formation of present physiographic features. The first, the great denudation, developed a virtual peneplain, and the second, during the latter part of the Quaternary, resulted in cutting the Grand Canyon. The Esplanade and Tonto platforms, explained by Dutton as temporary base-levels, are held to be structural benches.
The writer also follows Davis in holding that the present course of the Colorado River was established before the beginning of the uplift -that resulted in the canyon cycle of erosion. It is a superposed stream, let down from the surface of the peneplain of the great denudation.
W. B. W.
TOO REVIEWS
Gypsum Deposits of the Maritime Provinces. By Wititam F. JENNISON. Canada Department of Mines, No. 84, tort. Pp. 170, figs. 19, pls. 36.
This report is largely taken up with general discussion of the world- distribution of gypsum, its origin, manufacturing processes, arid the character of the manufactured products. Considerable space is given to descriptions of various local occurrences that may become of com- mercial importance.
Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the Magdalen Islands make up the Maritime Provinces. The gypsum deposits were thought at one time to belong to Permian age, but they are now known to be Mississip- pian. In Nova Scotia the deposits are not limited to any particular horizon, but are found near the base, in the middle of the system, and immediately underlying Pennsylvanian coal beds. They are in all cases associated with marine limestones and marls, and the author believes this fact is of great significance. The gypsum is found in beds ranging up to roo feet thick and in many places is seen to grade into the limestone. The deposits in other provinces present no additional features of interest.
The author believes the gypsum comes from conversion of submarine limestones or marls by the action of free sulphuric acid of juvenile origin. In support of this theory he points out that numerous circular blowholes found in massive formations of the gypsum were vents for escaping gases developed by the action of sulphuric acid on the calcareous
materials. W. B. W.
Colorado Ferberite and the Wolframite Series. By F. L. Hess and W. T. SCHALLER. U.S. Geol. Survey,, Bull. 583. Bp. 75; pls. 14, figs. 35.
In toro the Colorado field, chiefly in Boulder County, furnished approximately one-sixth of the world’s production of tungsten ore. In no other field is the iron tungstate the principal ore mineral.
In the first part of the report, Hess discusses the mode of occurrence of ferberite in this district, the mineral associations being given in con- siderable detail. He also submits 95 out of 300 analyses examined to obtain a basis for differentiation from the remainder of the wolframite group. He proposes the following definition of the group: At one end of the series shall be placed ferberite, ranging from pure FeWO, to a composition bearing 20 per cent of the hubnerite molecule MnWO,, and
REVIEWS IOI
at the other end shall be hubnerite in which the proportions of iron and manganese are the reverse of those given for ferberite. The term wol- framite shall be reserved for mixtures of these molecules ranging between the limits assigned to the two end members.
In the latter part of the bulletin Schaller gives a detailed discussion of the crystallography of ferberite. A total of 32 forms were determined,
12 of which are new for the wolframite group. W. B. W.
Glacier National Park. By M.R. CAmpBELL. U.S. Geol. Survey, Bull¥ No:Gco. Pp: 54, figs..3, pls..13-
This bulletin is one of a series intended for popular use, now being published by the United States Geological Survey. It presupposes no knowledge of scientific geology on the part of the reader, and is intended as a guide to the chief physiographic features of the region.
The report takes up a score of the principle valleys, giving a brief statement for each regarding trails and camps, adjacent mountains, glaciers, cirques, and other physiographic features of interest. Among these is the Lewis overthrust fault. It can be observed in most of the valleys and is a controlling factor in the topography. A thick block of limestone has been thrust over shales along a fault plane dipping about 10°, for a distance averaging not less than 15 miles. The eastern boundary of the park follows closely the edge of this overthrust block.
What may be considered the culminating point of the continent is found on Triple Divide Peak. Waters falling on this peak reach Hudson Bay, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Pacific Ocean.
Geologists must regret that the scope of this bulletin was not extended by a few paragraphs on the stratigraphic column exposed in the region.
W. B. W.
Useful Minerals of the United States. By SAMUEL SANFORD and RALPH STONE. U.S. Geol. Survey, Bull. No. 585. Pp. 250.
Two lists of useful minerals in the United States were published more than twenty-five years ago in annual reports of the United States Geo- logical Survey. Many changes in production in recent years require a new compilation and its publication in more available form.
The plan of the work includes all of the states, and under each is listed the minerals found and the more important localities. To what extent the deposits have been mined is indicated in most cases. Data
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on clays, building stones, and petroleum are included also. The latter part of the report includes a glossary of more than 4oo terms. Each definition of a mineral is followed by a list of the states in which it is found, so that this feature combines the features of glossary and index.
W. B. W.
Geology and Oil Prospects of Northwestern Oregon. By C. W. WASHBURNE. U.S. Geol. Survey, Bull. No. 590. Pp. 111, pl. 1.
Great development of California oil fields has led to extended pros- pecting in other regions bordering the Coast Range Mountains.
The sedimentary rocks exposed in this region range from Upper Eocene to Pleistocene. Shales and coarser clastics of both fresh-water and marine origin greatly predominate, intercolated with tuffs and vol- canic agglomerates. Very little detailed work has been done on the stratigraphy of these systems. Fossils are quite abundant, but there are few if any remains of diatoms, so abundant in the California oil fields.
The author fails to find indications favorable for oil in this region. The structure in the northern part is a broad, low geanticline, broken by many large igneous masses, and by multitudes of small dikes and faults. That no oil exists is inferred from the fact that in all these breaks in the strata no true oil seeps have developed. Farther south, in Coos County and vicinity, the structure is essentially a broad syncline with low flanking anticlines and few dikes. The structure is favorable for oil reservoirs, but here also oil-seeps, so abundant in Mexico and
Southern California, are entirely absent. W. B. W.
Slate in the United States. By T. Netson DALE and OTHERS. U.S. Geol. Survey, Bull. No. 586. 1914. Pp. 220, figs. 18, pls. 26.
This report is in the main a corrected and revised edition of Bulletin 275 issued in 1906. Since the publication of that bulletin, slates of economic value have been found in several states and additional inves- tigation made in well-known districts.
Part I of the present bulletin summarizes the present knowledge of the origin, texture, and chemical and mineral composition of slates. The structure of slate is treated with more detail. In Part II more or less detailed descriptions are given of occurrences of slate in fourteen different
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states, Pennsylvania and Vermont being treated in considerable detail. Part III takes up the problems of slate prospecting, quarrying, and the uses of slate.
Statistics for 1913 give the total value of slate production in the United States as $6,175,476. Pennsylvania produced more than one-
half of the total, and Vermont more than one-fourth. W. B. W.
Mineral Resources of Alaska. By A. H. Brooxs and OTHERS. U.S. Geol. Survey, Bull. No. 592. Pp. 413, figs. 13, pls. 17, map I.
This bulletin is the tenth annual report upon mining conditions and mineral resources of Alaska. In addition to the administrative report there are given results of investigations in a score of districts during the 1913 field season. Several of these record the progress made in well- known mining camps, while others are results of reconnaissance trips in little-prospected districts. The more important of these preliminary reports will be embodied in separate bulletins. In these papers emphasis is laid on conclusions<